The Native American Library

One of the most important steps in healing mother earth and the people of Turtle Island (North America) in particular is to clear up the confusions and misconceptions about Native American history. This is the true spiritual foundation of America. Until the foundation is set correctly, America will not reach its true spiritual potential in the new millennium. Ironically, because of mistakes made in the past, we now must go back a thousand years in order to advance into the next.

Sunheart, of Micmac and Wampanoag descent, is the director of The Center For Algonquin Culture, which is reconstructing much of the great Algonquin civilization of the 1500s and 1600s, which stretched from coast to coast and from the arctic circle to Florida. The ancient traditions of the Algonquin people, developed over 10,000 years or more, found answers to every situation that might come up in life, all still as relevant today as ever. Because some Algonquin languages are in danger of becoming lost, this work is very urgent at this time. For this reason, his work focuses on the spirituality, language, culture, natural lore, and geography of the 84 major Algonquin nations, most of which still exist today, however scattered. Professor of Native American studies at a major liberal arts college, he has collaborated with spiritual and cultural leaders from dozens of non-Algonquin Native American nations over the past eleven years, and has found there is much in common between the traditions. Sunheart is actively working in support of Hodenosuannee (Iroquois) Lakota (Sioux) Salagi (Cherokee) Hopi, and other native peoples in many respects. Therefore, you will also find references to these diverse teachings and history as well, where appropriate. We all belong to mother earth. All have a place on the hoop. We are all of one family. No-o-go-mach!

TIMELINE FOR NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY: PRECONTACT PERIOD

50,000 - 11,000 BC Bering Strait open
50,000 - 5,000 BC Lithic
50,000 - 25,000 BC Pre-Projectile
15,000 - 8,000 BC Clovis Culture
(Archaic)
8,000- 7,000 BC Folsom Culture
7,500 - 4,500 BC Plano Culture
8,000 - 1,000 BC Archaic

4,000 - 1,500 BC Old Copper Culture (Lake Superior)
1,500 BC Domesticated Dog
1,400 BC - 1,534 AD "Woodland Culture"
1,400 BC - 400 BC Early Woodland
400 BC - 1,000 AD Middle Woodland
1,000 AD - 1,534 AD Late Woodland
500 BC - 1900 AD Bow and arrow use. (1500 BC in some areas)

TIME LINE OF NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY; EARLY CONTACT

996 AD Norse land in Nova Scotia, Labrador
1010-Norse spend three winters uner Thorfinn Karlsefni.
1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue. Observes tobacco ceremony
1493 Horses and other livestock introduced at Hispaniola. Columbus' 2nd voyage.
1497 John Cabot explored Canada
1500 Gaspar Corte Real of Portugal explores coast.
1500 Peak of Mississippian culture
1501 Corte Real's 2nd voyage. He is lost at sea.Portugese fishing boats off coast.
1502 Montezuma II ruler of Aztecs. Columbus' 4th voyage.
1504 French fishing boats off coast of North America
1507 Term "America" coined by German map maker.
1508 First sugar mill in West Indies
1513 Ponce de Leon claims Florida for Spain
1513 Balboa discovers Pacific for Europeans
1517 Cordoba discovers Yucatan, battles the Maya
1521 Ponce de Leon fatally wounded in Florida
1524 Giovanni da Verrazano explored North America from the Carolinas to Nova Scotia under a French flag. Sails into New York Harbor, discovers Hudson River.
1526 Verrazano killed by natives in the West Indies.
1534 Jacques Cartier lands on Gaspe Peninsula, claims land for France.
1535 Jacques Cartier wintered at Quebec area and saw Hochelega a Huron town, now Montreal.
1536 Jacques Cartier's second voyage
1537 Pope Paul III tries to outlaw "Indian" slavery to no avial.
1539 De Soto begins exploration of New World.
1540 Coronado explores American Southwest in search of gold, discovers Grand Canyon.
1540 Basque whalers visit the coast of Labrador until 1610.
1541 Third voyage of Cartier founded Quebec city, conquered native town of Saguenay.
1543 DeSoto secretly buried in the Mississippi, so natives wouldn't find his grave.
1546 Mayan revolt crushed by Spanish army
1570 latest possible date for founding of Iroquois Confederacy
1576 Martin Frobisher sails to the Arctic, to Baffin Bay.
1578 Francis Drake lands in California, claims it for England
1579 Cortez captures Tenochtitlan (Mexico City)
1581 Demand for beaver hats in Paris
1584 Walter Raleigh sends expedition to Virginia
1586 Potato introduced to Europe from New World. English colonists rescued at Roanoke Island.
1587 Virginia Dare born at Roanoke, first English child born in the New World.
1588 Thomas Harriot, member of Roanoke Colony, describes native culture in his journal.
1590 Croatan "Lost Colony"
1603 Samuel de Champlain's first voyage
1603 American Indians paddle a canoe on England's River Thames near London.
1605 Port Royal set up by Sieur de Monts in Nova Scotia.
1606 French colony produces first play at Port Royal in Acadia.
1607 First permanent English colony at Jamestown
1608 Champlain establishes permanent French colony at Quebec. Captain John Smith writes first American book published in London.
1609 Henry Hudson explores Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Hudson River to Albany. John Smith decrees that colonists must grow corn (maize)
1610 210 colonists in North America. Santa Fe established. Jamestown famine
1613 Dutch establish trading post on south tip of Manhattan. Virginia colonists destroy French settlement at Mt. Desert Island, Port Royal Acadia the following year. Pocahontas converts to Protestantism.
1616 Smallpox kills 90% of natives in New England.
1617 Criminals in England sent to Virginia as "punishment"
1620 Pilgrims chartered by Virginia Company of London to settle in Virginia, but land at Patuxet, now called "Plymouth Rock" after 3 month voyage.
1621 Treaty with Massasoit, kept for 20 years.
1624 Dutch settle New Amsterdam, Fort Orange(Albany) Virginia made a royal colony
1626 Peter Minuit reputedly buys Manhattan for $24 of beads.
1628 Puritans settle at Salem, led by John Endicott.
1637 New Sweden established on 60 miles of Delaware river shore.
1639 First colonial printing press in Massachusetts Bay Colony
1643 Kieft's War in New York
1654 Dutch capture New Sweden
1664 English capture New Amsterdam, rename many towns and rivers.

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Archeological Evidence For "The Way of The Heron" as an Ancient Tradition

Ed Curtain:
Along the historic boundary separating the Mohawks and Mohicans...a strong argument can be made in favor of relative peace and cooperation along this cultural frontier....to me this implies that the strongly fortified prehistoric Mohawk settlements were protecting themselves against other expanding Iroquois populations.

The entire pattern of pre-contact Algonquin settlement in eastern New York and northern New Jersey seems to show a lack of concern with either fortification or the existence of strong unilineal descent ideology. The relationship between these groups and well-organized Iroquoian neighbors dwelling in strongly fortified towns must have involved a set of cooperative and conflict-reducing mechanisms...

Since the pattern of site fortification disappears south and east of the Mohawk Valley proper, it seems reasonable to assume that diplomatic means may have been much more important than warfare in mediating relations between the eastern NY populations. The spatial boundary and locational contexts separating contemporary Oak Hill and Chance phase settlements provide some of the basis for this relationship.

The Iroquois and Mohican had different ecological adaptations which favored flexibility and resiliency in Mohican (Algonquin) land use strategies and social arrangments, but ledt to intervillage competition and a dynamic social strategy.. among the Iroquois.

This creates an alternative view of the Mohicans and Mohawks in prehistory as mutually reinforcing, cooperative neighbors over significant stretches of the past, rather than the hostile enemies recorded during the 17th Century.

BEAR English
MUKWA Ojibway
NOKWYOO Cheyenne
MKO Potowatomi
MAHK(W) Shawnee
MAHKWA Miami/Illinois
MUHK Unami
MOK(W) Munsee
MAKWA Algonquin
MAK Cree
MAHKWA Mohican
MOIN Micmac
MOSQ Massachusetts
MASKE Narragansett
AWAUSUSE Quiripi
AWASOS Abenaki

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(Much of this material will be featured throughout Native New Yorkers, The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York)

The Lewis Cass Material

The following is from: the long out of print "The Delaware Indian Westward Migration" by C.A. Weslager. This section is directly quoted by Weslager from the Lewis Cass questionaires of 1821 which were distributed to Munsee and Unami in Michigain in that year. Some of the answers are very revealing concerning every day life of the people at that time, however some show probable ignorance on the part of the individual, which is ever a possibility in an oral tradition after the breakup of the core nucleus of the nation.

I have included within brackets my commentary on the answers, since most of them refer to places, people, or customs that may not be familiar to the average reader. When understood, they are very revealing about the spiritual life of the Munsee and Unami. I have used the numbers as marked in the questionaire, but have only selected those which I feel add to the scope of this book.
p 89

1. What is the original name of the tribe?
"Len,nop,pa [like Lenape]"
2. What is the present name?
"Wa,bun,na,ke ." [I believe this was the original name of the people as they called themselves around 1000 BC, which the Delaware say means "Men of the East," but could also mean "People of the dawn land," or "Children of the Dawn." It is interesting the individual surveyed felt this was a newer name. Perhaps it was reinstated as part of a revival of traditionalism about this time.]
4. To what other tribes are they related?
"They are related to the Nanticokes, Mohegans, [could be Mohicans or those of eastern Connecticut] Monsies [Munsee] Oppono [probably Wapanoes of western Connecticut, a Renni-speaking group] Nalochewanoes, [This may refer to the Unalatchtigoes of southern New Jersey. I don't know where the "goes" went.], and Oppings." [Wappingers] [It is significant he did not mention the Shawnee and Miami. There is a theory that they split off from the "Delaware" in 1600 and headed west, but there are obvious problems with this theory, as the Delaware themselves don't include them in their "nation."]
5. What is the degree of relationship?
"The above tribes sprang from the same origin." [I believe from the Mohican/Corchaug-speaking people called "Orient Point" culture, though tradition implies Munsee.]
6. What is the earliest incident they recollect in their history?
"Previous to the discovery of America by the whites, they were in a large meeting house in their worship. The day of a sudden turned dark and a very bad smell was smelt apparently coming from the sea. Shortly after, they were all taken sick and a great number of them died. Since that time, all manner of diseases have been prevalent among them. Before that they had no sickness as they ever heard of." [This incident is associated in my mind with the strange storm that came up suddenly when Verrazano's men landed on Staten Island, shaking hands with the natives and inadvertently spreading small pox, which quickly began to wipe out between 55% to 95% of the population. (Dean Snow's figures).
7. Whence did they [the Lenape] come?
"They have no knowledge of coming from any other continent than the one they are now in. Their tradition goes no farther than about Philadelphia and along the seashore eastward towards New York, it being the country they anciently were settled in."[This aligns well with the theory that the Orient Point people of southern and eastern New York are the principle ancestors of the Lenape.]
8. What migrations have they made, and when and why?
"They say by being encroached upon by the whites they were compelled to move westward and by farther encroachments from time to time by the whites they are still under the necessity of moving to the west till the present time."
9. What memorable events in their history have been transmitted to them?
"In ancient times they knew nothing of war; that they all lived in perfect peace."
[Some will think this sounds like fiction, but I believe it to be true, and is a prominent part of the oral tradition of most Algonquin regions. The old peacemaking tradition, the "Way of the Heron," is most prominent in the northeast. The Micmac have only a word for "Defenders" and no word for "War-makers." According to James DeMeo's in-depth study in Saharasia, few if any cultures were war-like before the ecological disasters of 4000 BC in the middle east. It is not clear who Henry Hudson was referring to as "The Loving People," since most Algonquins were fairly peaceful before the introduction of guns.]
10. With whom have they been at war, and when?
"They were at war with the Catahoes [Cherokee] and Seneca about the time that the French first settled in Canada. [This is true, confirmed by Shawnee history as well. The Seneca ventured as far south as Virginia, crossing the entire Lenape region. Later, in the 1700s, the Seneca allowed the Delaware to live in the Susquehanna Valley as a buffer zone.]
12. What belts have they, by which these wars (or any other events in their history) are commemorated?
"There were no such things as belts used as tokens of war in ancient times. The British were the people who first adopted the plan of belts being used as tokens of war, and they have used them as such tilll this time." [Dr. Joe Diamond's archeological findings seem to indicate that wampum was not common until the Dutch introduction of the mux__ or steel drill.]
14. When and at what place were they first acquainted with the whites?
"Somewhere between Philadelphia and New York on the seashore was the place where they saw the first whites." [The first recorded contact was apparently on Staten Island, which is less than an hour's drive from Philadelphia today, however there may have been earlier contact with fishermen along the coast of New Jersey. William Penn arrived in Philadelphia fairly early.]
15. What connection has this tribe with the council fire formerly held at Brownstown, at the mouth of the Detroit river?
No answer. [This is a very significant question and significant silence. The question helps us locate the "Great Council Fire of Detroit" because there was also one inside Detroit, where Pontiac's statue stands today at the meeting of four trails. This one may possibly be the one that was brought westward from Oka (Montreal) during the great "Seven Fires" migration, and may be the sacred fire preserved from the creation of mankind, according to the creation stories. I gather from his silence both that the Delaware were not among the fire keepers of that fire, (the Potowatomis were) and also that it was too sacred to mention to a white person, again suggesting this was the "original" fire. It also indicates that the great fire was still there in 1821. It was moved around that time or shortly thereafter, possibly to somewhere in Kansas, although some say it was buried.]

Government
1. What is the nature of their government, generally?
"It is a republic." [Many traditional Algonquins refer to the old Algonquin Union as "the Republic" or "Confederacy." The two terms are not contradictory.]
2. Are their chiefs hereditary or elective?
"They continue in office during good behavior or they elect one they think most capable."
3. If hereditary, what is the course of descent?
"If the chief dies, they consider his brother to be entitled to the office. If he has no brother, a nephew is considered as having the next right. The son of the chief has no right to become a chief. It must be a brother or nephew on the mother's side. [In all cases, the mother's brother is a greater guiding force in a young man's life than the father, which is typical of matrilinial cultures, and also usually in bi-lineal ones as well. It was found that fathers and sons tend to compete and conflict with one another, but uncles fare much better. The importance of the mother's brother is reflected in the passing of the title of chief.]
4. Have they village chiefs and war chiefs?
"They have both village chiefs and war chiefs. [This is significant, in that the Muskogean people have both, as do the Cherokee. It is not necessarily true for all Algonquins, but certainly all those from the southern tier. It is apparently a Missippian influence.]
5. What authority have the chiefs?
"The village chief is listened to and obeyed in all cases."
6. Is the boundary between the authority of the war chiefs and village chiefs clearly defined?
"It is not." [Yet it is defined clearly in the following answers.]
7. Does the authority of the village chiefs cease on the declaration of war?
"The war chief's authority is but little inferior to the village chiefs but they always act in concert, the one with the other."
8. How is the authority of the chiefs exercised?
"In cases of war, the village chief remains still or neutral and the war chief has the management of the affairs, and if his advice is approved of by the council, it is carried into effect. If not, it becomes null and void."
9. Are there any female chiefs, and if so, do they exercise all the authority exercised by the male chiefs?
"There is none." [Some accounts say that after a woman has raised her children, she has the freedom to attain any office she likes.]
12. Is there any mode of compelling the payment of a debt?
"They have no compelling a person to pay a debt, though they frequently ask for it."
13. Is there anything like a redress of civil injuries?
"There is none." [According to some accounts, they practiced various forms of what today is called "restorative justice." The answers to the Cass questionare point this out elsewhere.]
14. Are there any punishments inflicted, and if so, by whom?
"They have none."
15. If a murder be committed, how is the guilty person apprehended and punished?
"No punishment is inflicted by the nation, but frequently revenged by the friends of the murdered person, killing the murderer or the friends of the murderer, all going hand in hand, collecting wampum with the assistance of the chiefs, the council being called. The breach is made up by giving 200 fathom of wampum to the nearest relations of the deceased person. The chief cautions the murderer not to do so any more; that if he is ever guilty of the like again, that no assistance would be afforded him." [The state would not punish its own people because there was no "state" to speak of, in the European sense. There was simply "Government by communication," a self-organizing body politic. It did not punish murderers but there were codes of honor among the people. Circumstances would determine if "revenge" (Delaware for capital punishment) would be enacted. It was presumable a sufficient deterrent just to know such a reaction was possible. There was also banishment, which could lead to death.]
17. ...By whom may this revenge be taken, and what are the regulations respecting it?
"They have a right to revenge until the aggressor shall make restitution.."
18. If a father, brother... be murdered, is it considered the duty of any of the surviving relatives to revenge, and if so, whose duty is it?
"It is the duty of none, but generally practiced by those who feel the most injured." [Again, revenge is an option in response to murder only, not every petty disagreement or even theft. In our own society, life imprisonment is often the price of murder, which is no more ethical than execution by some standards.]
19. In taking this revenge, is the person ever exposed to the surviving relatives of him upon whom he has thus avenged the death of his relative? [IE, can one revenge lead to another?]
"Not often. It is generally considered equivalent to the other." [IE, the relatives generally recognize that justice has been done. Please keep in mind that they had a society with no prisons, or taxes to pay for them, and no dictatorial government to execute criminals. Lenape people were free citizens and had the option for revenge, but at the same time were encouraged to seek peaceful means of restitution, including adopting the murderer into the family to do the work of the deceased and carry the weight of their duties.]
23. Is stealing considered a crime?
"It is considered wrong." [In other words, a violation of any tacit understanding about sharing any property was recognized as wrong. This is not exactly the same as what white people called stealing, but this definition covers both.]
24. Mention those acts which are considered criminal.
"None except murder." [In other words, most wrongs can be corrected and undone, and the person should be allowed to learn the error of thier ways and to undo them, but murder cannot be undone, it is final and irreversable. It is, in a sense, absolute. The distinction is then made between it and all other "wrongs."]
29. Is the nation divided into separate tribes?
30. What are those tribes? Name them.
The Wolf, the Turkey, and the Tortoise. [Weslager himself claimed that these distinctions were suspect, and not of ancient origin, and were not clans. Here they are described as "tribes." Some call them "totem states."]
32. Is this division for the purpose of government, or any other purpose?
"It is for the purpose of government."
33. Is it in practice attended with any effect? [Does it work?]
"It is attended with good effect because a small number is much easier governed than a large. [Sociologists have debated this point for years. Many feel that a pure democracy, or even a good republic, has a size limit, and that beyond a certain size, the quality of life suffers. This was the justification for "states' rights" and the maintaining of 13 separate colonies and then 13 states in the late 18th Century, for quality of life purposes. This was due to the fear of Federalism, or a strong central government.]

The Lenape went to the other extreme, and kept their governments very small to allow for the most individual freedom and happiness, encouraging each person to govern their own affairs and develop themselves as leaders in their community. Unfortunately, this did not serve them well in organizing to combat large organized standing armies such as the French and English had. The surrender of "individual liberties" for the sake of "national security" had not yet been made, and was not made in time. If they had known then what they know now, it cannot be presumed they would have chosen differently. Algonquin people would rather live free, free even from the yoke of their own governments, and die with honor, than live as slaves to any man. It was a choice they may have made consciously. We don't know.]

Peace
1. Are messengers ever sent, like ambassadors, to negotiate a peace?
"They are."
2. Are the persons of these messengers considered sacred?
"They are, generally."
3. How is the desire for peace manifested?
"By the conquered party sending a messenger having white wampum after which negotiation is entered into and peace is concluded."
4. Do other tribes act the part of mediators?
"They do sometimes." [Mediation is a high art among Algonquins. From the 1970's onward, significant initiatives on the development of mediation networks were made by Native Americans, largely Algonquin and Iroquois.] (Danielson)
6. Is there diplomatic maneuvering?
"None except solemn promises to remain upon friendly and peaceable terms." [The humble speaking of truth, without twisted rhetoric, combined with non-verbal gestures or symbols, is considered the height of peacemaking. This concept is very close to, if not the same as Satyagraha, practiced by Mahatma Gandhi, which had Jainist and Sanskrit roots.]
7. What are the ceremonies attending the conclusion of a peace?
"None except dancing together and manifesting friendship." [Imagine the Irish and British today dancing together, or George Bush with Saddam Hussein. It would show a sincere interest in peace, I think!]
9. What pipes and belts are used?
"Red stone pipes and white belts of wampum. [Interesting they use red pipe stone. There are many types and colors of pipes among the Algonquins.] [Weslager: If the answer refers to Catlinite, the so-called red pipestone, it suggests the Delawares were using ceremonial pipes at this time, made from a particular kind of stone obtained from a quarry in southwest Minnesota.]

Death and Its Incidents
1. What disposition is made of the corpse, as soon as life leaves the body?
"The eyes are closed, the limbs straightened, and the corpse washed and dressed."
2. What are the funeral ceremonies?
"Nothing more than a collection of people at the time of interment." [This is not true, see Nora Thompson Dean's section. All-night vigils are one of the most distinctive customs in Lenape culture. The Delaware/Chippewa healer Mike Hopkins tells a touching story of an aunt who was "successfully assimilated," and preferred to know nothing about the old ways and "superstitions." However, when a member of the family died, she repeatedly called him to remind him to turn all mirrors and pictures to the wall, in accordance with ancient custom, and also to organize the all night vigil.]
3. How is the grave prepared?
"By digging into the ground to the depth of 3 or 4 feet, sufficiently large to receive the corpse."
4. How long is the corpse kept before interment?
"No particular length of time but not generally to exceed 24 hours."
5. What is the ceremony of mourning?
"None."[This is contradicted by many accounts of mourning rituals among the Lenape.]
9. Do they ever visit the graves of deceased friends?
"They do always, every spring for at least one week."
11. Do they dread the approach of death?
"Not in general."
15. Do they ever burn the bodies of deceased friends?
"Never."
16. What do they put in the grave with them?
"Nothing more than their clothes."
17. Do they believe that their bodies will ever be restored to life?
"They do."
[Weslager comments aptly: "Funerary rites among the Delawares varied over the years, and the above answers are not descriptive of the earlier practices at the time of the first European contact. Moreover, it is apparent that the answers to the questions were not researched in depth. Among the burial practices observed by the traditionalists in Delaware families in Oklahoma in recent years were purification by burning cedar, painting the face of the deceased; a processional to the cemetery; a hole cut in the coffin, with the edges reddened, through which the spirit could escape; food served in a prescribed manner at the graveside; and the erection of distinctive wooden markers for men and women.]

Birth and Its Incidents
1. Is there any ceremony analogous to christening or connected with the naming of children?
"None.
2. At what period of life are they usually named?
"No particular age." [This may seem strange to many readers, who would expect all children to be named at birth. In fact, a child in the Shawnee tradition was not considered a person for three days, and not unless given a name.]
3. From what circumstances are they named--is it from bodily qualities or appearance, or from any other circumstance?
"It is generally from dreams, dreamt by the parent or some relation, relative to the agilitiy or faculty of some animal, which they say appears to them and tells a pretty story." [Weslager points out that many Delaware names had no connection with animals. I believe the animal names were only one of many types of "adjectivelike" words used in naming. There was often both a generalized categorizing name, often an animal, plus a unique or specifying name, such as a quality. The combination of these two gave you an almost scientific description of the person or thing named, similar to how flowers and herbs are named in Latin.]
4. Do they take the name of the father or mother?
"Neither."
5. Have they ever more than one name? [IE two totally different names]
"They have sometimes, but the second one is one of their own choosing, when they arrive to years of discretion." [This is highly common.]
7. Are they generally unwilling to tell their names?
"They are not."
8. Do they in a family call one another by their names?
"They do."
9. How do the children address their parents?
"By the appellation of mother and father." [Note that the mother's brother, the uncle, has an important position in the child's life, but is not called the father.]
10. What is the domestic government of children?
"Generally by advice. Corporal punishment is not tolerated among them." [The Micmac use the neepeesba'an or 'the switch," but more as an audio-visual device, as it makes a terrifying sound.]
11. Is there any system of education, and if so, what is it?
"None except learning [teaching] the young men or boys to hunt. [Weslager: Girls were obviously taught domestic crafts by their mothers and other older women.]
12. Is any restraint exercised over children?
None, except threatening. [ie, using the switch to make a loud noise.]
13. Are they ever punished by corporeal or other punishments?
"None, except denying them food for a certain time." [This would have been a short time, similar to going to bed without their supper. Note that fasting is considered a good thing, and the sign of a strong person.]
14. At what age do they cease to be considered as children, and to become entitled to the priveleges of adults?
"When they are considered capable of providing for themselves."
17. Are parental feelings strong among the Indians?
"They are very much so."
18. Is the attachment of children to their parents strong and does it continue during life?
"Some are very much attacthed to their parents and it continues during their lives, and some are as much the reverse." [In other words, some parents are very attached to their children.]
19. Do parents exercise any authority over their children after they have arrived at mature age?
"They do, for they consider them better able to recieve the counsels of the parents." [This is surprising and much overlooked by anthropologists and historians-it is the reverse of the English custom.]
20. At what time is it expected that children can maintain themselves/
"From 15 to 25 according to the ability of the child."
21. How are the children (treated) during infancy?
"The child from its birth has the greatest attention paid to it. They bathe it in warm water with a kind of mint, (and are) steeped in it (for the purpose of giving it an agreeable smell) at least once or twice every day for 12 months."
22. Are they carried in a cradle?
"They are carried upon a board after a sufficient and soft cushion is prepared the child is lashed to the board with a belt. A hoop is fixed over its head to spread a cloth or handkerchief upon to keep the sun and air from it, some of them have this board decorated with beads, porcupine quills and many other like things." [The word Papoose is a Lenape/Algonquin word for "baby." The word is often used or misused to refer to what is properly called a "cradleboard."]
23. Are the boys and girls treated with equal care and affection in a family?
"They are."
24. In the event of the death of the parents, upon whom does the charge of the children devolve?
"It devolves upon the nearest relation."
25. Is there any difference in the treatment of legitimate and illigitimate children?
"There is no difference. They are treated alike." [This answer is indicative of the long struggle between church concepts of marriage and the Lenape concepts of marriage, showing that although Christian marriages were widely adopted by 1821, the guilt and ostricization of children of unwed parents was not. Many considered marriage one of several options. This was a point of contention after the arrival of the missionaries.]
27. Who takes care of illegitimate children, the father or the mother?
"The mother, but the father sometimes gives it presents of clothes."
28. Is it often that the Indian women have more than one child at a birth?
"It is very seldom that they have more than one." [Zeisberger comments that twins were rarely heard of among the Delawares.]

Marriage and Its Incidents
1. In what mode is their courtship conducted?
"The young couple have nothing to say to each other till the bargain is made by the parents. Then the young man gives a present of goods to the parents of the young woman, and they are considered married." [I understand that arranged marriages were not the rule, but the exception. Once the couple decided to marry, the parents took care of all the "arrangements" as was common in Europe.]
2. Is the subject of matrimony arranged between the parents of the contracting parties?
"It is always." [See above]
3. Is the consent of either of the parties asked?
"The parents of both parties must be agreed and the contract made by them without consulting the young people upon the subject." [This sounds very strange to me, that the young people were not consulted. Other accounts contradict this.]
4. Is there any ceremony of marriage and if so, describe it.
"None, except what is mentioned above." [I disagree. There are many types of marriage ceremonies among the Algonquins. They are often held at dawn, whereupon there was a pipe ceremony and the couple would place feathers in each other's hair.]
5. Is more than one wife allowed; if so how many?
"They generally have but one, for they consider it wrong [mainly since conversion to Christianity] yet they sometimes have more." [Chiefs were often expected to have a second wife, generally the sister of the first.]
6. Is there any superiority among the wives?
"The one that can exercise the most bodily strength is considered superior." [Again, other accounts show that the first wife had superiority, all other things being equal.However it is true that a woman of good physical strength was prized more than one who was beautiful.]
7. Do they compose one family?
"They do when the women can agree, but if they cannot agree, they live separate."
8. Is it considered the duty of a man to marry the sister or other relation of his deceased wife?
"It is, if the man appears to regret the loss of his wife and shuns the intercourse of women for a number of months, the relative's deceased will present him with a suit of new clothes and give him to (marry) a sister or some other relative of his former wife. The same mode is adopted with regard to the woman." [In other words, a woman will marry the brother of her deceased husband. This is still practiced today.]
13. Does the husband ever abandon the wife, or the wife the husband?
"It is frequently the case. They consider it no crime."
14. In the event of a divorce, how are the children divided?
"When a man and woman part, the children are considered as belonging to the woman."
16. Does a man ever marry the mother and daughter?
They do frequently, and at the same time. [This seems interesting in the light of the previous claim that all marriages were arranged by the parents.]
17. Is marriage (to) a near relation prohibited by their custom; and if so, to what degree does the prohibition extend?
"It is strictly prohibited, as far as any relationship is known." [Although in the United States you can marry a third cousin, the Lenape would not allow marriage to any cousin. The clan system was strictly enforced. This is why the Dutch found no deformities among the Lenape in 1621.]
18. Does a man ever give anything, or serve any time, in order to procure a wife?
"They do. It was anciently a great custom and is in practice still."
19. Is it common for men and women to live together without being married?
"It is frequently the case, but considered dishonorable." [Again, we have to ask, which type of marriage is being referred to? Plus keep in mind that serial marriage was the norm.]
21. Is it common for unmarried women to have children?
"It is frequently the case."
22. Is it injurious to the reputation of an unmarried woman to have children?
"It is very."
23. Does it affect her chances of being married?
"Very little." [It obviously did not affect her reputation among Lenape men, only among whites.]
24. What proportion of married women are without children?
"Rather more than among whites." [I tend to question this. Lenape women were very keenly aware of the biological clock and their obligations to society to raise children.]
25. What is the average number of children in a family?
"Not to exceed three." [Elsewhere this question was answered with a much higher number.]
27. At what age do the women generally begin, and at what age do they generally cease to bear children?
"From 16 to 40 they are considered capable of bearing children." [This corresponds roughly with the Medicine Wheel teachings on the cycles of life, which are more critical in importance to women than men, in that men can father children well into their seventies. Although I think of the age of the crone to be 45 in Algonquin Medicine Wheel teachings, one often hears of becoming an elder at forty.]

Family Government, Social Relations, etc.
1. Has custom prescribed any particular duties for husband and wife?
"The duty of the husband is to treat his wife with tenderness and respect, to provide meat and clothing, and other necessaries for the family. It is the duty of the woman to be obedient to her husband and faithful to his interests to make the clothing, to make and mend his mocassins, raise corn, take care of their goods and all domestic affairs, cook their provisions, etc."
2. Does the manual labor fall upon the wife?
"It does in general."
3. Does all the trouble of moving the camp devolve upon the women?
"It does not. The man and woman share in the fatigue according to their ability."
4. Does the husband often strike or otherwise punish his wife?
"Not frequently, unless intoxicated, or very ill-tempered. [This is true, and one of the reasons why women captives often refused to be rescued after a war was over. Women of any race were treated with great respect for the most part.]
8. Do the women ever scold? And if so, is this a prerogative of the sex, as in civilized life, at which the husband has no just cause of offense?
"The women are frequently given to scolding [the Dutch accounts describe how eloquent the Lenape were at "haranguing" each other] but the men pay but little or no attention to it." [This strikes me as a very humorous picture. It is true, that many Lenape men could definitely be called "the silent type."]
9. Is the woman ever, in fact, at the head of the domestic establishment?
"She is always, and the whole care devolves on the woman." [Some Algonquin women would add--because we wouldn't let a man take over and screw it up!]

Religion
1. What are their general opinions upon the subject of religion?
"They have a very exalted opinion of their religious meeting." [Note the person avoided criticizing the white church.]
2. Do they believe in a future state of rewards and punishments?
"They generally believe in future rewards and punishments."
3. Do they believe that good or bad conduct in this life will have any effect on their future happiness or misery?
"They believe that if a person is honest and upright in his deportment that immediately after leaving this world he will enter into another equaly as good or better and those of the opposite character will be secluded and they think will be unhappy."
4. Do they believe in one Supreme Being, and if so, by what name do they distinguish him?
"They do, and distinguish him by calling him the creator of us all, and of all things."
5.Do they believe in subordinate deities, and by what names do they distinguis them?
"They believe in twelve subordiante deities placed in different grades descending from the highest to the lowerst. They think the lowest is on earth among them but invisible, noticing all their actions, which he communicates to teh next deity and so from one to the other until it is communicated to the supreme being. [Weslager: The concept of twelve heavens, each presided over by a Manito, who repeated the rayers of the Indians until they reached the Creator on high, was an important part of the Delaware religious pattern. Thus, a supplicant repeated his prayers twelve times.]
6. Do they believe in evil spirits? And if so, by what name do they distinguish them?
"They believe in but one evil spirit, which is the devil. They suppose him to have been created holy, but he being proud spirited, was not willing to acknowledge the creation of all things to the supreme being, but contended that he had created the bat [the flying rodent, who is still considered by most Algonquins to be a messenger of evil. This is why ceremonies are not conducted at night by many Algonquins today; the bat might come.] The dispute arose to such a degree that the devil took a disgust and plunged himself from heaven into the earth where he remains to this day. That is the reason (they say) why guilty folks always look down. [Weslager: David Zeisberger, whose experience as a missionary among the Delawares between 1745 and 1778, qualified him to comment on the native religion, wrote, "They seem to have had no idea of the devil until modern times. Preachers arose among them who proclaimed that there was such a being,having secured their knowledge from the whites."] [This story is clearly a mixture of old Algonquin tales and the newer Christian ones.]
7. How do they divide the powers and prerogatives of these different spirits, good and bad?
"They suppose that the Deities have a predominant power over the Devil."
8. What is generally the state of their mythological opinions?
"They put great confidence in what we (would) call fabulous reports.
9. Do they believe in ghosts?
"They do very much, and say they have often seen them."
10. Do they believe in the moral superintendence of any invisible being over the affairs of the world?
"It appears that they do in some measure."
11. Do they pray for favors or assistance?
"They do, and believe it to be of very great importance." [The word for "the spiritual life," tchee-chan-kwee-wee" means literally "spirit look over me."
12. When they deposit pioeces of tobaccfo or any other article upon a stone or mountain, what is their idea?
"It is a sacrifice to their Deities that they will be mindful of them and continue their favors towards them."
13. Have they any ideas respecing a final judgement?
"They appear to, and expect to be judged."
14. Do they associate with their opinions of a future state of existence, ideas of mental or corporeal pleasures?
"They expect to enjoy those pleasures, amusements, and all things which were the most agreeabel to them on earth in the greatest perfection."
15. State their general ideas respecting the situation of the soul from the time of death.
"They believe that the souls of those who are worthy are immediately after leaving the body conducted by their Deities to a place of happiness, and those who are judged unworthy are left on this earth to wander to and fro and are unhappy."
16. Have they any particular religious ceremonies or societies. If so, what are they?
"They have a national worhips which they think keeps the world from coming to an end. It is attended with very great expense in procuring wampum and provisions. This meeting is continued for twelve days and twelve nights, successively. They have a large building prepared for that purpose, about 25 feet in width and 50 or 60 feet in length according to the number that is expected will attend, with a door in each end. Notice is given at what time their worship will commence."
(there is more to this section, similar to Nora Thompson Dean's account, at least three full pages, which I will add later.)
17. Have they any priests? If so, how are they apopinted, and what are their rites and duties?
"They have none appointed or that follow it for a [means of financial] support, but any aged person is thought capable of exhorting or advising them."
18.What is their opinion respecting wizards or witchcraft, or in other words, the power of any man to suspend, alter, or control the operations of nature?
"They are very firm in the belief of witchcraft and suppose that there is many among them that can appear in the shape of any animal they please, and have the power to cause sickness. They believe this to be a supernatural power invested in them by some one of the Deities for the purpose of good, that they might have power to heal the sick. But that in their present degenerated state they have made a bad use of it, that instead of healing they inflict sickness and other calamities."

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A few interesting factoids from
NATIVE NEW YORKERS
The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York City

The Lenape "Delaware" (Munsee and Unami, plus their cousins, including the Mahican and Canarsee) who established the great population center that became New York City, were a people of an Algonquin culture that is profoundly different than American culture today, and yet they were able to make incredible contributions to American life. These accomplishments have gone almost completely unnoticed by history. This book will attempt to correct this lack, documenting their geography, population, philosophy, fashion, customs, ecology, spirituality, diplomatic ability, and their several beautiful and poetic languages. It will also try to answer the question: "where did they go?"

The author of No Word For Time; The Way of the Algonquin People shares his insights applied from experience with Algonquins of today, and from studies of similar Algonquin nations elsewhere. Pritchard hosted a speech by Chief Mark Peters as he gave the first oration by a Munsee Chief in the Munsee homeland of Manhattan, in over 250 years, and hosted a 500th Anniversary Friendship Circle near the Ramapough Mountain area on Columbus Day 1992 with Chief Redbone Van Dunk and thirty other elders.

This book will provide the most complete timeline of New York's Algonquin history ever compiled, the most complete geography--including trail maps and a county-by-county breakdown of which Algonquins lived where in New York State and how many. It will present the clearest picture yet of exactly what life was like in the metropolitan area before the arrival of the European, plus a transcript of Verrazano's letter regarding the people of New York harbor.

But Native New Yorkers is much more than a text book. It is a work of humor with a profound sense of irony for the contrast between the city of today and the forgotten ancient city Verrazzano glimpsed. It is a book with "attitude," that savors the prosaic as well as the romance of the story, as only a long-time resident of The City can. Most of all, it is a work of spiritual literature; an Algonquin perspective on what is perhaps one of the greatest sagas in world history; one in which the "Grandfather" nation of the ancient Algonquin race, the Lenape, known for their oratory, wisdom, and spirituality, are removed from their greatest city by overwhelming odds. Ultimately outnumbered, their horticultural paradise is replaced by one of American's grittiest cities, and as they move west in their diaspora, treaty by endless treaty, they create new gardens, new cities, each of which they have to leave behind as they are expelled further into the wilderness.

This book will be suitable both as a trade paperback for the popular national market, and as a "cross-over" book for the New York State educational system, adaptable for eighth grade and up.

DID YOU KNOW?
A Lenape "Believe-It-Or-Not"

Over 13 million New York State citizens in 28 counties now live on what was Algonquin territory when the Dutch first arrived?

There were probably over 100,000 Algonquin-speaking people in those 28 counties of what is now New York state in 1500 AD? Several million Americans living today may be decendants of those 100,000 "missing" Algonquins?

There were at very least 15,000 Algonquins in the five boroughs and 50,000 more in the surrounding metropolitan area, (competing for population with the top 100 cities in Europe at the time) with little if any negative impact on the environment?

The US promised the Delaware a 14th state in Ohio? (The US still owes the Delaware Nation over one million dollars for the sale of that territory.)

Manetta Creek was named after an evil monster of Lenape legend, and Greenwich Village was an actual Indian village which stood on the banks of that creek?

Canal Street was a stream that led to the Hudson River, fed by a small lake where City Hall now stands?

No deed has ever been found for Minuit's $24 Manhattan deal?

The Hudson River has had at least seven official names?

According to Verrazano, (the first white tourista to visit the Big Apple) the NY Indians had a high population density with almost no negative impact on the environment, and found them highly intelligent and sociable? (What happened!)

Routes 80 and 78 out of the city were ancient pilgrimmage trails of the Lenape? That route 80 leads to a site which was continuously occupied by the Munsee for as long as 9,000 years?

Decendants of New York City Lenape were removed by treaty at least twenty times on their way to Oklahoma, subjecting them to unspeakable poverty, disease,and death?

On their way West, the Lenape who founded New York City also founded (with Algonquin relatives); Wilkes Barre PA, Shamokin (Sunbury) PA, Harrisburgh PA, Sharon PA (Youngstown, OH) Pittsburgh PA, Kittatiny PA, Punxsutawney, PA., Cashoctin OH, Chillicothe (1st capitol of Ohio) Delaware, OH, Upper Sandusky OH, Mansfield, OH, Dayton, OH, Muncie IND, and Muncie ONT.

They also played an important role in the early history of Asbury Park, NJ, Cleveland OH, Columbus (was Sekunk) OH, Toledo, (Fallen Timbers) OH, Circleville, OH, (was Kispoko) Fort Wayne, IND (formerly Kekionga, formed 1752 by Miami, a major Indian city called "The Glorious Gate" occupied by "a large number of Delawares..in 1780."), Circleville, OH (formerly Kispoko) Leavenworth KS, Kansas City MO, Dallas TX, and Texarkana, ARK.? That they even lent one of their words to name the state of Wyoming?

Delaware Chief White Eyes was awarded the first Congressional Medal of Honor? That Lenape ideals may have had a great impact on the original plan for U.S. Government (under the Articles of Confederation) via Charles Thompson and Ben Franklin?

It was Delaware Chief Teedyuskung who recognized the talents of young Charles Thompson, and appointed him his bilingual secretary in negotiating peace with the British? Thompson, who became fluent in Lenape, later helped Jefferson frame the US Constitution. (One of Jefferson's children married into the Rolfe family of Pocahontas, descended from her son Thomas).

The combination of New York's ready availability of wampum and the marketing ingenuinity of the Dutch, set the stage for New York to become the trading capitol of the new world?

There were Canarsee Shipping Lines in 1400? There was a fur market at the site of today's fur market 500 years ago?

Broadway was the Mahican Trail which led to Montreal? Flatbush Avenue and King's Highway in Brooklyn were also important trails? That one trail forded what is now the Harlem River?

Some Munsee and Unami who moved to Kansas, Texas, and Arkansas, became expert horsemen, and lived part of what is now called the Saga of the Wild West, as depicted in movies?

New York's Tammany Hall was named after a Unami Chief, but not one from New York? (He helped Penn establish Philadelphia, and according to Lenape legend, even helped him name it.)

Bowling Green was the site of a sacred council fire and council elm, and may have been the site of a Kapsee Chief's house, and that George Washington's plan was to build his new "White House" on that spot, where the Heye Indian Museum now stands?

The first "Presidential White House" was actually in Manhattan, at #1 Cherry Street, named after a Lenape cherry orchard which was there, and that similarities in design between that building and today's "White House" are rather obvious?

Cooper Union, where Lincoln gave one of his greatest speeches, was probably a gathering place for orations for hundreds of years? (Games such as La Crosse or "Bagettaway" may have also been played.)

New York City and the UN are mentioned in Hopi prophecies thousands of years old, referred to as "The New City by the Water"? That when the Hopi revealed their prophecy at the UN in 1992, the ocean rose up and submerged parts of the city for the first time?

The first U.S. "Indian Treaty" was with the Lenape Delaware? One of the first two "Indian Reservations" was in New Jersey? (For the Munsee. The earlier one was in Rhode Island.)

The Bronx Zoo is built on the site of the old Bear Swamp, where the Siwanoy (Munsee) lived until statehood?

Eleven of our fifty state-names refer to the Algonquin people of which the Delaware are considered "Grandfathers?"

Algonquin people, including the Delaware, were able to hunt Bottlehead whales in the ocean, using harpoons and flotation devices made of bladders?

Both George Bushes, plus Presidents James Garfield and FDR, and the painter Copeley, were all related to Susanna Hutchinson who was raised by New York City Lenape, and who at the age of ten was fluent in Munsee, hardly able to speak a word of English?

Verrazano and Einstein both were persecuted Jewish intellectuals, mathematicians and Renaisance men who came to Manhattan? Both have original letters and a travel diary at the J.P. Morgan Library in Manhattan? Both made discoveries that unintentionally led to the deaths of thousands of people (ie "The Smallpox Plague," "The Manhattan Project.")

The Delaware--descendants of the New York City people, gave us not only the word "woodchuck," but Punxsutawney Phil and Groundhog's Day as well?

(Book will include a bibliography, index, and a multiple-choice self-test, and an extensive Munsee glossary/vocabulary.)

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THE LAKOTA

The Story of White Buffalo Calf Woman dates back to early times, in a sense, to the birth of Siouian Civilization. She brought the gift of seven ceremonies. At least two others have arisen from these that deserve mention. The buffalo or bison was well known to eastern US and Canada at the time of contact, so this does not mean that the origin of the Siouian people was in the plains. Ohio and even some southern states had bison, and it is in these areas that the early ancestors of the Sioux come from.

The Seven Sacred Ceremonies
(Based on The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk's Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux)

The Chanupa Ceremony: The pipe, the calumet, is the great gift of White Buffalo Calf Woman, although many other Native American cultural groups use it. It comes into play in most of the ceremonies. Orval Looking Horse is said to be the 19th Generation keeper of White Buffalo Calf Woman's pipe. There is a type of ceremony which uses only the pipe. Tobacco or kinnikinik is a very special gift or offering to spirit, and is essential to the Chanupa Ceremony, and must be offered to the pipe carrier before the ceremony can take place. In the story, White Buffalo Calf Woman instructs them to make a ceremonial lodge out of several other dwellings, one with 28 poles, one of which is the "key" or raising pole. The word tipi derives from ati (dwelling) and pi (they) combined, which means "where they dwell."

The Inipi Ceremony: The rite of purification, or sweat lodge ceremony is another ceremony given to the Lakota by White Buffalo Calf Woman. Ini means life, pi means they, so inipi seems to mean "so that they may live." Other types of Native Americans also keep the sweat lodge ceremony. The Chanupa is usually part of this ceremony. Inipi means lodge, or "where the people live."

The Hanblecheyapi Ceremony: The fast, or vision quest is called Hanbleche which means "praying (crying) for a dream (or vision)" He che ne la nee pee is "I send a voice." It is very important, especially for young men. In this ceremony one should be very humble. The word onchida refers to being a "pitiful human." One asks forgiveness and offers gratitude to Tun (born) kan (long ago) shee (the one) la (like) which is often translated as grandfather. Pila is thanks, and "wopila" is thankfulness, the words so often heard in ceremony.

The Hunkapi Ceremony: Hunkapi is The Making Of Relatives ceremony. It is related to adoption, but is more profound, in that one would be expected to lay one's life down to defend one's Hunka-relative. Black Elk tells a story of how the Ree or Arikara people of the Caddo family came to be adopted into the Lakota nations.

Ishna Ta Awi Cha Lowan: The Making of Women Ceremony: This is a ceremony in which a young woman 'comes of age." In this ceremony, a red stripe is made on her head, from her forehead to the back of her head.

The Ceremony for the Dead: There are two ceremonies for the spirits of the dead, and are related to the funeral services of the white people, in that they honor the death process and those left behind. First is the Keeping of the Soul Ceremony, and second the Releasing of the Soul Ceremony. During the Keeping ceremony, as given by White Buffalo Calf Woman, the soul is purified so that is becomes one with Waqan Tanka, so that it can return to the place where it was born. This is done through the prayers of the people. When a good person dies, many will gather in the teepee to pray that the soul is purified so it can find the way to heaven and not wander the earth like a ghost as "bad people" do. Some who are not well liked are not offered the ceremony.

All of the people gather for the second ceremony, the "releasing" or the "Making of Sacredness" ceremony, to send the soul of the departed on to heaven. A close relative is usually chosen to be the Keeper of the Soul. A buffalo, or many buffalo, are hunted and killed, the bones cracked and boiled, and the tallow and also the dried meat are used in the ceremony. The chanupa is filled with kinnikinnik or tobacco mixture (usually containing not only the plant tobacco, but uva ursi, sweetgrass, and possibly one or two other non-hallucigenic plants) by the Keeper of the Soul, and smoked by all.

Wiwanyag Wachipi, The Sundance Ceremony: (Dance Looking At The Sun) It is said that everything belongs to the Creator except your own body. All other offerings to the Creator really come from Him who created it. So the offering for the survival of the people is generally ones own body "so that the people may live." This is done by fasting, and in this case by piercing. The dancer in the ceremony is suspended by a cottonwood tree, which is a sacred tree. If cut, the cross-section reveals a star. These ceremonies last many days. Mitakwe Oyasin, Mita (my) kuye (that which is) Oyasin (all, or all people; people is oyate) are both ways to say "All my relations." This ceremony is held in the Moon of Fattening (June) or the Moon of Cherries Blackening (July) at the full of the moon. The ceremony may involve the use of: ree twist tobacco, red willow bark, sweet grass, a bone knife, a flint axe, buffalo tallow, tanned buffalo calf hide, rabbit skins, eagle plumes, red earth paint, blue paint, rawhide, eagle bone whistles, and more.

Tapa Wanka Yap The Throwing of the Ball Ceremony: This ceremony is mentioned by Black Elk as one of the seven sacred ceremonies promised by White Buffalo Calf Woman, received in a vision long after her departure. He does not count the Chanupa as a separate ceremony among the seven, apparently. The game involves four teams and four goals in the four directions.

There are many other ceremonies as well, some of which are referred to in Black Elk, Holy Man of the Oglala, written many years after The Sacred Pipe.

The Marriage Ceremony: Lakota couples often live together and are committed to each other in many important ways, however to break up the living arrangement, they only need to agree to separate. However, at some point, even after many years, if they decide to marry, there is a ceremony which uses the calumet or sacred pipe, and this should not be broken. In some ceremonies such as this, they each cut flesh from their arm and tie the two pieces together and place it in a pouch. This ties their souls together. They may even choose to come back in another life as brother and sister, or as twins. Some say this ceremony was also one of the seven promised by White Buffalo Calf Woman.

The Birthing Ceremony: In this ceremony, the chekpa or umbillical cord, is saved and placed in a leather bowl-like object. If it is a baby girl, the leather bowl-like object is made to look like a turtle. If a baby boy, the leather holder is made to look like a lizard.

The Yuwipi Ceremony: This is a much later development, in which the medicine man wraps himself in a star blanket and performs a healing ceremony. It is usually in secret, and developed during times of persecution by missionaries.

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Lenape Dictionary

The following is a study of Unami Delaware (the best known form of the Lenape language) based on the Zeisberger speller which was created in eastern Ohio in 1776 for the "praying Indians" of the area. Chief Newcomer, also Unami, was an advisor to this project, although not a professed Christian. I have translated the spelling into SSPA (Sunheart's Standard Phonetic Algonquin Spelling) to aid in pronounciation.
(Parts of this dictionary will be featured in Native New Yorkers, along with Munsee and Quiripi words, the main dialects of New York City)

Pronounciation for the Zeisberger Text, circa 1776.

Each phrase will include the Zeisberger spelling then my approximation of a phonetic spelling. The Zeisberger spelling system for vowels is as follows:
a like ah as in law
e like "ay" as in grey
i like "ee" as in
j like "i" as in pin
o like "o" in orange
u like "oo" as in blue
y like "ee" as in many
ch as in Scottish
oa after w represents a dipthong blended together. Woa is like wa but with the lips rounded.

Lenape Root Words and Endings

These root words may or may not be correct when used alone, depending on the situation. Generally, they can be understood as "baby talk" when used this way. However, memorizing these roots will assist you in learning the Lenape language. Don't be surprised if they change form from time to time, for example woo-la (good) can become weel, or wellay. In fact, these words are based on even smaller words, usually verbs. Unfortunately, there are also homonyms in Lenape. Some syllables sound similar but mean different things, for example laan (rain) and lan (root word for eagle).

Lenape to English: Root Words
acan ah-k'n ending to a word, the infinitive, or a state of
ae ay in a word often indicates a path (from ah-ney)
amen ah-mayn or ah-min, ending to a word, infinitive, or a state of
aney ah-nay path
damu dam-maoo forgive
eu ay-yoo he, she it (ending)
gake gah-kay teach
gegin gay-gin teaching
gelin gay-lin humility
gi geek him
gunt goont peace
ki kee you
kshee k'shee big
ktehenna ktay-hen-nah heart
kwan or kway greetings
kwoa kwoa greetings (may be related to woa or light)
laan laan rain
lan lawn peace, also clarity.
lanni lan-nee eagle
len layn mind (feel?)
lunk loonk dead
manto man-toh or Manitoh Great Spirit
mawe mah-way gathering
me may (or meh) a tree
meetch meetch great
nahtch nahtch four-legged furry one
nak nahk our
neen neen we
nemen nay-men see
ni nee me
ootch ootch life
pimo pee-moh sweating, mist, shower of water
pimuk pee-mook going to the sweat lodge
quam kwam dream (?)
que kway woman
scha scha remember
tschitani tschee-tan-ee- strength
waluk wah-look love
witsche wee-tchay help
woa woa light
woagan woa-gan A state of being
wuli woo-lee well, good may be based on the English word "well," but this form is found throughout the Algonquin languages and also in Lapland, and in old Norse. Interesting!

English to Lenape: Root words

ending to a word, the infinitive, or a state of acan ah-k'n ae
ending to a word amen ah-mayn or ah-min, ending to a word, infinitive, or a state of

big kshee k'shee
dead lunk loonk
dream quam kwam (?)
eagle lanni lan-nee
forgive damu dam-maoo
four-legged furry one nahtch nahtch
gathering mawe mah-way
going to the sweat lodgepimuk pee-mook
great meetch meetch
Great Spirit manto man-toh or Manitoh
greetings kwan or kway
greetings kwoa kwoa (may be related to woa or light)
he she it (ending) eu ay-yoo
heart ktehenna ktay-hen-nah
help witsche wee-tchay
him gik geek
humility gelin gay-lin
life ootch ootch
light woa woa
love waluk wah-look
me ni nee
mind len layn
our nak nahk
path aney ah-nay
path ay in a word often indicates a path (from ah-ney)
peace, also clarity lan lawn
peace gunt goont .
rain laan laan
remember scha scha
see nemen nay-men
state of being woagan woa-gan
strength tschitani tschee-tan-ee-
sweating, mist, shower of water pimo pee-moh
teach gake gah-kay
teaching gegin gay-gin
tree me may (or meh)
we neen neen
well, good wuli woo-lee may be based on the English word "well," but this form is found throughout the Algonquin languages and also in "Lapland," among the Sami and in old Norse. Interesting!
woman que kway
you ki kee

A Lenape Dictionary

These words are taken from Zeisberger's 1776 "spelling book" for his Christian mission for the Lenape. Its emphasis is on the spiritual. You should be able to create basic sentences and paragraphs from these words. Grammatical constructions exist, however sentences can be constructed in more than one way and still make sense. Use your imagination.

Easy words Lenape to English
Zeisberger phonetic translation

aan aan to go
chen chen wind
ees ees but, however
gu- goo- your (prefix)
gooch gooch father
jun joon here
kee kee you
ktee ktee your heart
laan laan rain
machk machk bear
mbee (um-)bpee water
ni nee I
quatch kwatch why?
que kway woman
woak woak and

Easy words English to Lenape
English Zeisberger phonetic

and woak woak
bear machk machk
but, however ees ees
father gooch gooch
go aan aan
here jun joon
I ni nee
rain laan laan
water mbee (um-)bpee
why? quatch kwatch
wind chen chen
woman que kway
you kee kee
your gu- goo- (prefix)
your heart ktee ktee

Two Syllable Words
Lenape to English

achtchin ach-tchin I must
aney ah-nay path
atta/matta mat-ta no (none)
cuwe koo-ay pine tree
eli ay-lee because
gahan ga-han shallow
gischgu geesch-gkoo day
gishque geesch-kway today
gohan go-han yes
gowoa go-woa know
gutti goo-tee one
hackey ha-kay body
hacki ha-kee earth, land
kaschi ka-schee don't
kschatey ksch-a-tay tobacco
kshachun kshah-choon wind
kshilaan kshee-laan it rains hard
lill le-el tell me
linchen leen-chen west wind
meneel may-neel drink
meoheek mayo-heek great big
moocum moo-kam blood
nachen na-chen wind
nakih na-keeh down the river
nemen nay-men to see
newu nay-woo four
nischasch neesch-asch seven
nishchi neesh-schee two
nutschque nootsch-kway for nothing
pachat pa-chat split
pomsi pom-see to walk
sipu tsee-poo river
tachan tach-an wood
tindey teen-day fire
t'po-ku t'po-koo night
tschipey tschee-pay spirit (the way of spirit)
wachgun wach-g'n bone
wachtschu(k) wach-tschoo(k) mountain(s)
wdee oo-dee heart
wule woo-lay good

Two Syllable Words
English to Lenape

because eli ay-lee
blood moocum moo-kam
body hackey ha-kay
bone wachgun wach-g'n
day gischgu geesch-gkoo
don't kaschi ka-schee
down the river nakih na-keeh
drink meneel may-neel
earth, land hacki ha-kee
fire tindey teen-day
four newu nay-woo
good wule woo-lay
great big meoheek mayo-heek
heart wdee oo-dee
I must achtchin ach-tchin
it rains hard kshilaan kshee-laan
know gowoa go-woa
mountain(s) wachtschu(k) wach-tschoo(k)
night t'po-ku t'po-koo
no (none) atta/matta mat-ta
nothing (for) nutschque nootsch-kway
one gutti goo-tee
path aney ah-nay
pine tree cuwe koo-ay
river sipu tsee-poo
see nemen nay-men
seven nischasch neesch-asch
shallow gahan ga-han
spirit (the way of spirit)tschipey tschee-pay
split pachat pa-chat
tell me lill le-el
tobacco kschatey ksch-a-tay
today gishque geesch-kway
two nishchi neesh-schee
yes gohan go-han
walk pomsi pom-see
west wind linchen leen-chen
wind kshachun kshah-choon
wind nachen na-chen
wood tachan tach-an

More Complex: Three syllable words and phrases
Lenape to English

achsunnal ach-soon-al stone
alhacquot al-hak-kwot rainy/stormy weather
aweesis(k) ah-wee-sis(k) animal(s)
chasqucem chas-kway-sem corn
comhachquall kom-hak-kwall leaves of a tree
ejajan ay-dja-djan (or ay-ia-ian) wherever you go
gischkschummen gisch-kschoo-men to cut with a knife
gitchitun gee-tchee-toon final destination
gokhoos gok-hoos owl
guneu goo-nay-oo it is long
gunnamochk gun-na-mochk otter
kechitti kay-tcheet-tee a little
kikhittuk keek-hee-took river
kilunook gee-loo-nook we together
kitschiwi kee-tschee-wee verily
ktahoalell kta-hoa-lell I love you all
leekhasu leek-ha-soo written
linaquat leen-na-kwat like unto, just like
linschganall linsch-ga-nal finger
luewak loo-ay-wak they say
mamschali mahm-schah-lee remember me
mawinsin ma-ween-sin to gather
mbissis m'bpee-sis lake or pond
mechowak may-tcho-wak old tree
meechhannek meetch-han-nek great river
meetchgiluk meetch-gee-luek Great One
mehittuk may-hee-tuk a tree
meneichung may-nayee-chung a congregation
(mesingwe) may-seen-gway guardian of the hunt, tree spirit) not from Zeisberger
metschitschank mayt-schee-tschank spirit
milineen mee-lee-neen give us
missechewe miss-say-chaway to run
mogoa mo-go-wah don't know (?)
muchomes mu-sho-mas grandfather (like Ojibway)
nacha na-cha three
neeskelaan nees-kay-laan rainy weather
niluna nee-loon-na we
quangomel kwan-go-mel I greet you
quawangomel kwa-wan-go-mel I greet you (more formal)
takene ta-kay-nay the woods (Taconic comes from this)
talleka tal-lay-ka Crane bird
tanghanneu tahn-gha-nay-oo little creek
tschupik tschoo-pik root (of a plant)
uleewe oo-lee-way I thank you
wachtschunall wach-tshoo-nall mountains
wanishi wah-nee-shee may the way be beautiful for you
welsittank wel-seet-tank one who believes
witschenil weetsch-ay-neel help me
witschinge weetsch-een-gay help
woachejeek woa-chay-djeek light
woakawi woa-kah-wi light all around
woapasum woa-pa-soom the sun shines white
wojauwe wo-iyah-way chief
wule woo-lay good
wuliechen woo-leeay-chen it is good
wulisto woo-lee-sto believe
wulonquam woo-lon-kwom dream something good
wulonquam woo-lawn-kwam I dreamed something good
wulumquot woo-loo-kwat round hill

More Complex: Three syllable words and phrases
English to Lenape

a little kechitti kay-tcheet-tee
animal(s) aweesis(k) ah-wee-sis(k)
believe wulisto woo-lee-sto
believer welsittank wel-seet-tank true believer (?)
chief wojauwe wo-iyah-way
corn chasqucem chas-kway-sem
congregation meneichung may-nayee-chung
Crane bird talleka tal-lay-ka
cut with a knife gischkschummen gisch-kschoo-men
dream something good (to)
wulonquam woo-lon-kwom
(I) dreamed something good
wulonquam woo-lawn-kwam
final destination gitchitun gee-tchee-toon
finger linschganall linsch-ga-nal
give us milineen mee-lee-neen
good (it is) wuliechen woo-leeay-chen
grandfather muchomes mu-sho-mas (like Ojibway)
Great One meetchgiluk meetch-gee-luek
great river meechhannek meetch-han-nek
help me witschenil weetsch-ay-neel
I don't know mogowoa mo-go-woah
I greet you quangomel kwan-go-mel
I greet you quawangomel kwa-wan-go-mel (more formal)
I love you all ktahoalell kta-hoa-lell
lake or pond mbissis m'bpee-sis
leaves of a tree comhachquall kom-hak-kwall
light woachejeek woa-chay-djeek
light all around woakawi woa-kah-wi
like unto, just likelinaquat leen-na-kwat
little creek tanghanneu tahn-gha-nay-oo
long (it is) guneu goo-nay-oo
may the way be beautiful for you, wah-nee-shee (not from Zeisb.)
mother gahowes ga-ho-ways
mountains wachtschunall wach-tshoo-nall
old tree mechowak may-tcho-wak
otter gunnamochk gun-na-mochk
owl gokhoos gok-hoos
rainy/stormy weatheralhacquot al-hak-kwot
rainy weather neeskelaan nees-kay-laan
remember me mamschali mahm-schah-lee
river kikhittuk keek-hee-took
root (of a plant) tschupik tschoo-pik
round hill (a) wulumquot woo-loo-kwat
run missechewe miss-say-chaway
spirit metschitschank mayt-schee-tschank
stone achsunnal ach-soon-al
sun shines whitewoapasum woa-pa-soom
they say luewak loo-ay-wak
gather (to) mawinsin ma-ween-sin
thank you (I) uleewe oo-lee-way
three nacha na-cha
tree mehittuk may-hee-tuk
tree spirit (mesingwe) may-seen-gway guardian of the hunt, ) not from Zeisberger
verily kitschiwi kee-tschee-wee
we niluna nee-loon-na
we together kilunook gee-loo-nook
wherever you go ejajan ay-dja-djan (or ay-ia-ian)
woods takene ta-kay-nay (Taconic comes from this)
written leekhasu leek-ha-soo

Complex Words and Phrases: Four Syllables
Lenape to English

amememstook ah-may-maym-stook children
angelunka ahn-gay-loonk-ah they are dead
aptonagan ahp-toh-nah-gan word
aptoneu ahp-toh-nay-oo he speaks
chauwalanne tchaoo-wah-lan-nay fork tailed eagle
cuweuchak koo-way-oo-chak pine wood
ekhokewit ayk-ho-kay-weet nations
elangomat ay-lawn-goh-maht kin or good friend
eligischquik ay-lee-geesch-kwek today, on this day
elikhiqui ay-leek-hee-quee at this time
enendhackeen ay-nend-ha-ckeen (?) to teach by story or parable
gakegimuk gah-kay-gee-mook he teaches me
gemilguneen gay-meel-goo-neen it is given to us
getteminak gayt-tay-mee-nahk happy (or lucky)
gitschach summen gee-tchach-soom-men enlightened
gitapachki gee-tah-pach-kee thousand
gutgusgawa goot-goos-ga-wa he drove him back
guttapachki goot-tah-pach-kee hundred
helleniechsu hel-lay-nee-aych-soo he speaks the language
hobboeu hob-boh-ay-oo he smokes (the tobacco pipe)
ktahowaluk ktah-ho-wah-look he loves you
ktehennanak ktay-hen-na-nak our hearts
ktehuwawak ktay-hoo-wah-wak your hearts
lagejuwak lah-gay-djoo-wak (or lah-gay-ioo-wak) nation
linquechinook leen-kway-tchee-nook look here
loowanachun loo-wan-a-chun north wind
lowaneu m'bissis lo-wan-nay-oo m'bpee-sis north lake
lowaneu loh-wah-nay-oo north
lohomauwi loh-ho-maoo-wee show me
mantowoagan man-toh-woa-gan (or man-ee-too woa-g'n) spiritual strength or power
mawenemen mah-way-nay-men to gather or bring together
mechateu may-tchah-tay-oo deep snow (it is)
meechgalanne meetch-ga-lan-nay a hawk (great raptor!)
memakochcus may-mah-koch-koos red headed woodpecker
memsochhetschik maym-soch-hay-tscheek traveler
meschatamen may-schat-a-men to remember
metelensit meh-teh-len-sit a humble man
metummeu may-tom-may-oo wolf
monachgeu moh-nach-gay-oo groundhog
nachenummook natch-ay-noom-mook raccoon
nechnajungees nech-nah-djun-gees (or nech-nah-iun-gees) a horse
nachohane na-cho-ha-nay I am alone
patamauwan pa-ta-maoo-wos God (may be based on Latin root Pater")
peeetxookw-val pee-ayt-kschoo-koo-val to be blown in this direction (by the wind)
pimoacan pee-moh-ah-k'n or pee-moa-kan sweat lodge
pochenican poh-tchay-nee-kan drum
poquewechen poh-kway-way-chen a higher road
quawangomuk kwa-wan-go-muk He greets you
quoapanichen kwoa-pa-nee-chen good morning to you
sabbeleu sah-bay-lay-oo it is brought
sasappiwac sah-sap-pee-wak lightning
schachachgeu scha-chach-gay-oo straight
schachachgie scha-chach-gee-ay the straight road
schindikeu scheen-dee-kay-oo where spruce is plenty (may be the origin of the word "Shandanken" a place in New York)
shawaneu m'bissis sha-wan-nay-oo m'bpee-sis south lake
sihilleu see-heel-lay-oo water falls
sisawehak see-sah-way-hak oysters (may be the origin of Weehawken; the word for clams is "aas")
sookpehellaak sook-pay-hel-laak big falls in the river
tchannindewoagen tcha-neen-day-woa-gan difference
tindeucheen teen-day-oo-tcheen make a fire
tiskemannis tis-kay-man-nis a little fisher bird
tpusgauwieehton tpoos-gaoo-wee-aych-ton to make it even, to do justice, right
wachtuchwepi wach-tooch-way-pee the body
wahellemat wa-hel-lay-mat far
wassandeu wass-sah-way-oo clear day
wdelangoma oo)day-lan-goh-mah his friend
wewoatangik way-woa-tan-geek wise man
wewoathahe way-woat-ha-he skillful
wisaweu wee-sah-way-oo yellow
woapachsanai woa-pach-sa-nayee blanket
woapalanne woa-pa-lan-nay bald eagle
woapaneu woa-pa-nay-oo morning (could mean "first light?" nay-ta-me-ay-chen is "first")
woapanacheen woa-pa-na-tcheen good morning
wtschitchan (oo)tchee-tchan soul
wtschitchanquiwi (oo)tchee-tchan-kwee-wee spiritual, pertaining to one's soul or spirit
wulandeu woo-lan-day-oo warm day (imitation of English; Lenape have no "r")
wulachgenim woo-lach-gay-nim praise
wulegesku woo-lay-geesh-koo good day (not from Zeisb.)
wulinaquot woo-lee-na-kwat it looks good (it looks well)
wunattochton woo-nat-toch-ton to ask for

Complex Phrases: Four Syllables
English to Lenape

a higher road poquewechen poh-kway-way-chen
a little fisher bird tiskemannis tis-kay-man-nis
at this time elikhiqui ay-leek-hee-quee
bald eagle woapalanne woa-pa-lan-nay
big falls in the river sookpehellaak sook-pay-hel-laak
blanket woapachsanai woa-pach-sa-nayee
body wachtuchwepi wach-tooch-way-pee
children amememstook a-may-maym-stook
clear day wassandeu wass-sah-way-oo
deep snow (it is) mechateu ay-tchah-tay-oo
difference tchannindewoagen tcha-neen-day-woa-gan
drum pochenican poh-tchay-nee-kan
enlightened gitschach summen gee-tchach-soom-men
far wahellemat wa-hel-lay-mat
fork tailed eagle chauwalanne tchaoo-wah-lan-nay
God patamauwan pa-ta-maoo-wos (may be based on Latin root Pater")
good day wulegesku woo-lay-geesh-koo(not from Zeisb.)
good morning woapanacheen woa-pa-na-tcheen
good morning to you quoapanichen kwoa-pa-nee-chen
groundhog monachgeu moh-nach-gay-oo
happy (or lucky getteminak gayt-tay-mee-nahk
hawk (great raptor!)meechgalanne meetch-ga-lan-nay
he drove him back gutgusgawa goot-goos-ga-wa
he greets you quawangomuk kwa-wan-go-muk
he loves you ktahowaluk ktah-ho-wah-look
he smokes (the tobacco pipe)hobboeu hob-boh-ay-oo
he speaks aptoneu ahp-toh-nay-oo
he speaks the language helleniechsu hel-lay-nee-aych-soo
he teaches me gakegimuk gah-kay-gee-mook
his friend wdelangoma oo)day-lan-goh-mah
horse nechnajungees nech-nah-djun-gees (or nech-nah-iun-gees)
humble man (a) metelensit meh-teh-len-sit
hundred guttapachki goot-tah-pach-kee
I am alone nachohane na-cho-ha-nay
it is brought sabbeleu sah-bay-lay-oo
it is given to us gemilguneen gay-meel-goo-neen
kin or good friend elangomat ay-lawn-goh-maht
lightning sasappiwac sah-sap-pee-wak
look here linquechinook leen-kway-tchee-nook
looks good wulinaquot woo-lee-na-kwat it (it looks well)
make a fire tindeucheen teen-day-oo-tcheen
morning woapaneu woa-pa-nay-oo (could mean "first light?" nay-ta-me-ay-chen is "first")
nation lagejuwak lah-gay-djoo-wak (or lah-gay-ioo-wak)
nations ekhokewit ayk-ho-kay-weet
north lowaneu loh-wah-nay-oo
north lake lowaneu m'bissis lo-wan-nay-oo m'bpee-sis
north wind loowanachun loo-wan-a-chun
our hearts ktehennanak ktay-hen-na-nak
oysters sisawehak see-sah-way-hak (may be the origin of Weehawken; the word for clams is "aas")
pine wood cuweuchak koo-way-oo-chak
praise wulachgenim woo-lach-gay-nim
raccoon nachenummook natch-ay-noom-mook
red headed woodpecker memakochcus may-mah-koch-koos
remember (to) meschatamen may-schat-a-men
show me lohomauwi loh-ho-maoo-wee
skillful wewoathahe way-woat-ha-he
soul wtschitchan (oo)tchee-tchan
south lake shawaneu m'bissis sha-wan-nay-oo m'bpee-sis
spiritual, pertaining to one's soul or spirit
wtschitchanquiwi (oo)tchee-tchan-kwee-wee
spiritual strength or power mantowoagan man-toh-woa-gan (or man-ee-too woa-g'n)
straight schachachgeu scha-chach-gay-oo
straight road schachachgie scha-chach-gee-ay
sweat lodge pimoacan pee-moh-ah-k'n or pee-moa-kan
they are dead angelunka ahn-gay-loonk-ah
thousand gitapachki gee-tah-pach-kee
to ask for wunattochton woo-nat-toch-ton
to be blown in this direction (by the wind)peeetxookw-val pee-ayt-kschoo-koo-val
today, on this day eligischquik ay-lee-geesch-kwek
to gather or bring together mawenemen mah-way-nay-men
to make it even, to do justice, right
tpusgauwieehton tpoos-gaoo-wee-aych-ton
to teach by story or parable enendhackeen ay-nend-ha-ckeen
traveler memsochhetschik maym-soch-hay-tscheek
warm day wulandeu woo-lan-day-oo (imitation of English; Lenape have no "r")
water falls sihilleu see-heel-lay-oo
where spruce is plenty schindikeu scheen-dee-kay-oo (may be the origin of the word "Shandanken" a place in New York)
wise man wewoatangik way-woa-tan-geek
wolf metummeu may-tom-may-oo
word aptonagan ahp-toh-nah-gan
yellow wisaweu wee-sah-way-oo
your hearts ktehuwawak ktay-hoo-wah-wak

Complex Words and Phrases Five or More Syllables
Lenape to English

achgegindewoagan ach-gay-gin-day-woa-gan teaching
ahoaltowoagan a-hoal-to-woa-gan love
ahowoapewi a-ho-woa-pay-wee strong
anechunalti ah-nay-tchoo-nal-tee bark canoe
awebelleu ah-way-bel-lay-oo a bird
awossagamme a-wos-sah-gam-may heaven
chanindiwogan tcha-nind-dee-woa-gan change, difference
clamhattenamin kla-hat-te-na-meen to be of calm mind
dajamandamen da-dja-man-da-men (or da-ia-man-da-men) to feel
dallowigamen dal-low-ee-ga-men to overcome
ehasgitamank ay-has-git-a-man(k) watermelon(s)
elelemucquenk ay-lay-lay-mook-kwenk what we are created for
elemilowank ay-lay-mee-loh-wank this winter
eleminipunk ay-lay-mee-nee-punk this summer
elemisiquonk ay-lay-mee-see-kwonk this spring
eluwitschitanessid ay-loo-wee-tschee-ta-nays-seed the strongest
eluwiwulik ay-loo-wee-woo-lik holy, best, precious
etachgilowank ay-tach-gee-lo-wank this winter
etachginipunk ay-tach-gee-nee-punk last summer
gemuch wilelemuk hummena gay-mooch-wee-lay-lay-mook-hoo-may-na we are created for some great purpose or design. (may be partly English)
genamelenneen gay-nah-may-len-neen we thank you (Creator)
genamowoacan gay-nah-moh-woa-kan thanks
getanettowit gay-ta-net-toh-wit the all-powerful Creator
getschieeltowoagan gay-tschee-el-to-wo-gan mystery
gettamagolo gay-tah-ma-go-lo he is merciful
gettemagelensit gay-tay-mah-gay-len-seet one who is humble
gischelemilenk gee-schay-lay-mee-lenk The Creator
gischele gee-schay-lay to create
gischelematpanik gee-schay-lay-mat-pa-neek those whom He created
guschachsihimo goo-schach-see-hee-mo you are in the smoke
hallamagamik hal-la-ma-ga-meek forever
kigeijujumowawaki kee-gay-djoo-djoo-mo-wa-wak parents
kigenolewoagan kee-gay-no-lay-woa-gan a sign (from Heaven)
ktahoaltihenna kta-hoal-tee-hen-na we love one another
langundowoagun lawn-goon-do-woa-gun peace (a state of) and friendship
la'ouchsowoagan la'oh-ootch-so-woa-gun the life you are living
machapik match-ah-peek a bad day, a hard road, a test
machganaehkteu mach-ga-na-ayhk-tay-oo red sky, evening or morning
machtalo hummauwau mach-tah-lo hoom-maoo-waoo he is directed the wrong way
machtapequonitto mach-ta-pay-kwo-nee-toh evil spirit
majauchsowoagan ma-jaooch-so-woa-gan unity
mallicu mal-lee-koo evil
mamuckowoagun ma-moock-o-woa-gun destruction
manschawileu man-scha-wee-lay-oo it is wonderful
mattauchsowoagan mat-ta-ootch-so-woa-gan sin
memeetchxiteu may-meetch-ksee-tay-oo barefoot
metelensuwoagan may-tay-len soo-woa-gan humiliation
mimelendammauwil mee-may-len-dam-maoo-eel forgive me
moecanneu moeih-kan-nay-oo a dog
nachinawewoagan nach-ee-na-way-woa-gan luck chance
nemoewoagan nay-moeih-woa-gan vision, seeing
nenostammaewoagan nay-no-stam-maei-woa-gan understanding
netopaletschik nay-to-pa-lay-tscheek warriors
nguttitehatam n'goot-tee-tay-ha-tam let us be of one mind

pachgitatamauwin pach-gee-ta-dam-maoo-in to forgive
palauchsowoagan pa-laootch-so-woa-gan innocent life
patamaona pa-ta-mao-na our God (from Latin)
patamoelchawunanak pa-ta-moeil-cha-woo-na-nak we pray for them
patamwosunk pa-ta-mwo-sunk to God, with God, or in God
sacagunineen sack-ah-goo-ee-neen lead us
sacquelandamen sak-kway-lawn-da-men to be of troubled mind (sounds like: "peace is running away from me")
schachachgageechen schack-ach-ga-gee-chen the straight road
schachachgameu chack-ach-ga-mayoo a straight row
schachachgelendam schach ach gay-len-dam firm of mind
schachachkaptoneu schach-ach-kap-to-nay-oo to speak true
schauwunuppeque schaoo-woo-nup-pay-kway the shore of the lake
schiechikiminshi scheeay-tchi-kee-min-schee maple tree
tachpawewoagun tach-pah-way-woa-gun teaching
tachquipuagun tach-kwee-poo-ah-gun love feast
talattawoapin ta-lat-ta-woa-peen to behold, or view
tangelensowoagan tan-gay-len-so-woa-gan humility
tauwatawique taoo-wa-ta-wee-kway in the wilderness
tgauchsuwillenno tgaootch-soo-weel-layn-noh a good, peaceful and loving man
(tgaootch=heart/life, weel=good, layn=peaceful way, noh-man)
tschihoapehelis tschee-hoa-pay-kay-lees bluebird
tschitanissowoagan tschee-tan-ee-so-woa-gan strength
tschittaniteha tscheet-ta-nee-tay-ha to stand firm in heart and mind
tscholens tschoh-lens bird
uchtschindewoagan ooch-tscheen-day-woa-gan offering (sounds like "the great exchange")
wachtschuhatteu wach-tschoo-hat-tay-oo it is full (piled up?)
waselanden wah-say-lawn-den clear (peaceful) sunshine
waselenemen wah-say-lay-nay-men to light, to kindle
wawulauchsin wah-woo-la-ootch-sin to live in a good (woo-la) way
wawuleleudam wah-woo-lay-lay-oo-dam to be glad, happy
wewulelendamowi way-woo-lay-len-da-mo-wee joyful, glad, happy
wochagapoae woch-ah-ga-po-ay to stand in a circle
wochgitachtanne woch-gee-tach-tay-nay top of the mountain
wulalogewoagan woo-la-lo-gay-woa-gan good work
wulalelemileu woo-la-lay-lay-mee-lay-oo wonderful (entertaining, funny)
wulatschimolsin woo-la-tschee-mol-sin to make peace (sounds like, "to exchange good for evil")
wulamowecaxmike woo-la-mo-way-kaks-mee-kay in traditional (old) times
wulanguntowoagan woo-lawn-gunt-o-woa-gan peace
wulapensowoagan woo-la-pen-so-woa-gan blessing
wulatenamoagan woo-la-tay-na-mo-a-gan happiness
wulilussqwoagan woo-lee-loos-skwo-a-gan goodness

Complex Words and Phrases Five or More Syllables
English to Lenape

bad day, a hard road, a test machapik match-ah-peek
barefoot memeetchxiteu may-meetch-ksee-tay-oo
bark canoe anechunalti ah-nay-tchoo-nal-tee
bird (a) awebelleu ah-way-bel-lay-oo
bird tscholens tschoh-lens
blessing wulapensowoagan woo-la-pen-so-woa-gan
bluebird tschihoapehelis tschee-hoa-pay-kay-lees
change, difference chanindiwogan tcha-nind-dee-woa-gan
clear (peaceful) sunshine waselanden wah-say-lawn-den
Creator, The gischelemilenk gee-schay-lay-mee-lenk
destruction mamuckowoagun ma-moock-o-woa-gun
dog moecanneu moeih-kan-nay-oo
evil mallicu mal-lee-koo
evil spirit machtapequonitto mach-ta-pay-kwo-nee-toh
firm of mind schachachgelendam schach ach gay-len-dam
forever hallamagamik hal-la-ma-ga-meek
forgive me mimelendammauwil mee-may-len-dam-maoo-eel
good, peaceful and loving man tgauchsuwillenno tgaootch-soo-weel-layn-noh
(tgaootch=heart/life, weel=good, layn=peaceful way, noh-man)
goodness wulilussqwoagan woo-lee-loos-skwo-a-gan
good work wulalogewoagan woo-la-lo-gay-woa-gan
happiness wulatenamoagan woo-la-tay-na-mo-a-gan
heaven awossagamme a-wos-sah-gam-may
he is directed the wrong way machtalo hummauwau mach-tah-lo hoom-maoo-waoo
he is merciful gettamagolo gay-tah-ma-go-lo
holy, best, precious eluwiwulik ay-loo-wee-woo-lik
humiliation metelensuwoagan may-tay-len soo-woa-gan
humility tangelensowoagan tan-gay-len-so-woa-gan
innocent life palauchsowoagan pa-laootch-so-woa-gan
in traditional (old) timeswulamowecaxmike woo-la-mo-way-kaks-mee-kay
it is full wachtschuhatteu wach-tschoo-hat-tay-oo (heaped up?)
joyful, glad, happy wewulelendamowi way-woo-lay-len-da-mo-wee
last summer etachginipunk ay-tach-gee-nee-punk
lead us sackagunineen sack-ah-goo-ee-neen
let us be of one mind nguttitehatam n'goot-tee-tay-ha-tam
love ahoaltowoagan a-hoal-to-woa-gan
love feast tachquipuagun tach-kwee-poo-ah-gun
luck chance nachinawewoagan nach-ee-na-way-woa-gan
maple tree schiechikiminshi scheeay-tchi-kee-min-schee
mystery getschieeltowoagan gay-tschee-el-to-wo-gan
offering uchtschindewoagan ooch-tscheen-day-woa-gan (sounds like "the great exchange")
our God (from Latin) patamaona pa-ta-mao-na
one who is humble gettemagelensit gay-tay-mah-gay-len-seet
parents kigeijujumowawaki kee-gay-djoo-djoo-mo-wa-wak
peace and friendship (a state of)
langundowoagun lawn-goon-do-woa-gun
red sky, evening or morning machganaehkteu mach-ga-na-ayhk-tay-oo
shore of the lake schauwunuppeque schaoo-woo-nup-pay-kway
sign, a (from Heaven) kigenolewoagan kee-gay-no-lay-woa-gan
"sin" mattauchsowoagan mat-ta-ootch-so-woa-gan ("no spiritual life")
stand firm in heart and mind tschittaniteha tscheet-ta-nee-tay-ha
straight road (the) schachachgageechen schack-ach-ga-gee-chen
straight row (a) schachachgameu chack-ach-ga-may-oo
(schach-ach means "upright" or "straight"
strength tschitanissowoagan tschee-tan-ee-so-woa-gan
strong ahowoapewi a-ho-woa-pay-wee
strongest eluwitschitanessid ay-loo-wee-tschee-ta-nays-seed
teaching achgegindewoagan ach-gay-gin-day-woa-gan
teaching tachpawewoagun tach-pah-way-woa-gun
thanks genamowoacan gay-nah-moh-woa-kan
the all-powerful Creator getanettowit gay-ta-net-toh-wit
the life you are living la'ouchsowoagan la'oh-ootch-so-woa-gun
this summer eleminipunk ay-lay-mee-nee-punk
this spring elemisiquonk ay-lay-mee-see-kwonk
this winter etachgilowank ay-tach-gee-lo-wank
those whom He created gischelematpanik gee-schay-lay-mat-pa-neek
to behold, or view talattawoapin ta-lat-ta-woa-peen
to be glad, happy wawuleleudam wah-woo-lay-lay-oo-dam
to be of calm mind clamhattenamin kla-hat-te-na-meen
to create gischele gee-schay-lay
to feel dajamandamen da-dja-man-da-men (or da-ia-man-da-men)
to forgive pachgitatamauwin pach-gee-ta-dam-maoo-in
to light, to kindle waselenemen wah-say-lay-nay-men
to live in a good (woo-la) way wawulauchsin wah-woo-la-ootch-sin
to make peace wulatschimolsin woo-la-tschee-mol-sin (sounds like, "to exchange good for evil")
to overcome dallowigamen dal-low-ee-ga-men
top of the mountain wochgitachtanne woch-gee-tach-tay-nay
to speak true schachachkaptoneu schach-ach-kap-to-nay-oo
to stand in a circle wochagapoae woch-ah-ga-po-ay
to, with, or in God patamwosunk pa-ta-mwo-sunk
troubled mind (to be of) sacquelandamen sak-kway-lawn-da-men (sounds like:"peace is running away from me")
understanding nenostammaewoagan nay-no-stam-maei-woa-gan
unity majauchsowoagan ma-jaooch-so-woa-gan
vision, seeing nemoewoagan nay-moeih-woa-gan
warriors netopaletschik nay-to-pa-lay-tscheek
watermelon(s) ehasgitamank ay-has-git-a-man(k)
we are created for some great purpose or design.
gemuch wilelemukhummena gay-mooch-wee-lay-lay-mook-
hoo-may-na (may be partly English)
we love one another ktahoaltihenna kta-hoal-tee-hen-na
we pray for them patamoelchawunanak pa-ta-moeil-cha-woo-na-nak
we thank you (Creator)genamelenneen gay-nah-may-len-neen
what we are created for elelemucquenk ay-lay-lay-mook-kwenk
wilderness (in the) tauwatawique taoo-wa-ta-wee-kway
wonderful, (it is) manschawileu man-scha-wee-lay-oo
wonderful (entertaining, funnywulalelemileu woo-la-lay-lay-mee-lay-oo
you are in the smoke guschachsihimo goo-schach-see-hee-mo

one guti goo-tee
one neta nay-ta
two nishchi neesh-schee
three nacha
four newu nay-woo
five palenach pa-len-ach
six guttash goot-tash
seven nischasch neesch-asch
eight chasch chasch
nine peschgunk paysch-goonk
ten metellen may-tel-len

first netamiechen nay-ta-mie-chen
second nishelen eyachgiechung neesh-ay-lay-nay-ach-gie-chung
third nachelen eyachgiechung nach-ay-la-nay-ach-gie-chung
fourth newelen eyachgiechung nay-way-la-nay-ach-gie-chung
fifth palenach endcheleneyachgiechung
sixth guttasch endcheleneyachgiechung
seventh nischasch endcheleneyachgiechung
eighth chasch endcheleneyachgiechung
ninth peschgunk endcheleneyachgiechung
tenth metellen endcheleneyachgiechung

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Giovanni da Verrazano's Report
to Francis I, July 8, 1524
(Del Viaggio Del Verazzano, Nobile Forentino al Servigio N Francesio I, Re de Francia
falto nel 1524
From a translation by E.H. Hall, 1910. A 16th-Century copy of a manuscript in Italian is held by the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.

To King Francis I of France:
The History of the Dauphine and Its Voyage
After the tempest suffered in the northern parts, Most Serene King, I have not written to tell Your Majesty that which was experienced by the four ships which thou hadst sent by the Ocean to explore new lands, as Ithought you had already been informed of everything-- how we were compelled by the impetuous force of the winds to return to Brittany with only the distressed Normanda and Dauphine; where having made repairs, Your Majesty will have learned the voyage we made with them, armed for war, along the coasts of Spain; later, the new disposition with the Dauphine alone to continue the first navigation; having returned from which, I will tell Your Majesty what we have found.
From Madeira to the New World
From the deserted rock near to the Island of Madeira of the lost Serene King of Portugal (a) with the said Dauphine, on the XVII of the month of January past, with fifty men, furnished with victuals, arms and other instruments of war and naval munitions for eight months, we departed, sailing westward by an east-south-east wind blowing with sweet and gentle lenity. In XXV days we sailed eight hundred leagues. The XXIIII day of February (b) we suffered a tempest as severe as ever a man who has navigated suffered. From which, with the divine aid and the goodness of the ship, adapted by its glorious name and fortunate destiny to support the violent waves of the sea, we were delivered. We pursued our navigation continuously toward the west, holding somewhat to the north. In XXV more days we sailed more than 400 leagues where there appeared to us a new land never before seen by anyone, ancient or modern.
(a) commencing 1524. (The same hand had written 1523, then changed 3 to 4.)
(b) perhaps 16 hours.
Land Sited: 34 Degrees Lattitude
At first it appeared rather low: having approached to within a quarter of a league, we perceived it, by the great fires built on the shore of the sea, to be inhabited. We saw that it ran toward the south; following it, to find some port where we could anchor with the ship and investigate its nature, in the space of fifty leagues we did not find a port or any place where it was possible to stay with the ship. And having seen that it trended continually to the south,
(c) we decided to turn about to coast it toward the north, where we found the same place. We anchored by the coast, sending the small boat to land. We had seen many people who came to the shore of the sea and seeing us approach fled, sometimes halting, turning back, looking with great admiration. Reassuring them by various signs, some of them approached, showing great delight at seeing us, marvelling at our clothes, figures and whiteness, making to us various signs where we could land more conveniently with the small boat, offering us of their foods.
(c) in order not to meet with the Spaniards.
The First Landing in the New World
We were on land, and that which we were able to learn of their life and customs I will tell Your Majesty briefly:
They go nude of evething except that at the private parts they wear some skins of little animals like martens, a girdle of fine grass woven with various tails of other animals which hang around the body as far as the knees: the rest nude; the head likewise. Some wear certain garlands of feathers of birds. They are of dark color not much unlike the Ethiopians, and hair black and thick, and not very long, which they tie together back on the head in the shape of a little tail. As for the symmetry of the men, they are well proportioned, of medium stature, and rather exceed us. In the breast they are broad, their arms well built, the legs and other parts of the body well put together. There is nothing else, except that they tend to be rather broad in the face; but not all, for we saw many with angular faces. The eyes black and large, the glance intent and quick. They are not very strong, but they have a sharp cunning and are agile and swift running. From what we were able to learn by experience, they resemble in the last two respects the Orientals, and mostly those of the farthest Sinarian (Chinese) regions. We were not able to learn with particularity of the life and customs of these people because of the shortness of the stay we made on land, on account there being few people and the ship anchored in the high sea.
"Forest of Laurels" and "Field of Cedar"
(These headings are not in the original letter)
We found on the shore, not far from these, other people whose lives we think are similar. I will tell Your Majesty about it, describing at present the site and nature of said land. The maritime shore is all covered with fine sand XV feet high, extending in the form of little hills about fifty paces wide. After going ahead, some rivers and arms of the sea were found which enter through some mouths, coursing the shore on both sides as it follows its winding. Near by appears the spacious land, so high that it exceeds the sandy shore, with many beautiful fields and plains, full of the largest forests, some thin and some dense, clothed with as many colors of trees, with as much beauty and delectable appearance as it would be possible to express. And do not believe, Your Majesty, that these are like the Hyrcanian Forest or the wild solitudes of Scythia and northern countries, full of rugged trees, but adorned and clothed with palms, laurels, cypresses, and other varieties of trees unknown in our Europe; (d) which, for a long distance, exhale the sweetest odors; e) the property of which we were not able to learn, for the cause above narrated, not that it was difficult for us to travel through the forests, because their density is not so great but that they are entirely penetrable. We think that partaking of the Orient on account of the surroundings, they are not without some medical property or aromatic liquor. And other riches: gold, to which land of such a color has every tendency. It is abundant of many animals, stags, deer, hare; likewise of lakes and pools of living water, with various numbers of birds, adapted and convenient for every delectable pleasure of the hunt.
(d) We baptized this land ``Forest of Laurels'' and a little farther down on account of the beautiful cedars it was given the name ``Field of Cedars.''
(e) We smelled the odor a hundred leagues, and farther when they burned the cedars and the winds blew from the land.
Salubrity and Mildness of the Climate
This land stands in 34 degrees (f). The air salubrious, pure and moderate of heat and cold: in those regions gentle winds blow and those which prevail most continuously are west-north-west and west in summer time, at the beginning of which we were; (g) the sky clear and serene with infrequent rains, and if sometimes with the south winds the air gathers in clouds or darkness, in an instant, not lasting, it is dispelled, again becoming pure and clear; the sea tranquil and not boisterous, the waves of which are placid. And although the shore always tends to lowness, and is barren of ports, it is not therefore troublesome for sailors, being entirely clean and without any rocks; deep, so that within four or five paces from land are found, exclusive of flood or ebb, XX feet of water, increasing in a uniform proportion to the deep of the sea; with such good holding-ground that any ship whatsoever afflicted by the tempest can never perish in those parts unless it breaks its rope. And this we have proved by experience; because many times in the beginning of March when the force of the wind usually prevails in all countries, being anchored in the high sea oppressed by storms, we found the anchor broken before it dragged on the bottom or made any movement.
(f) like Carthage and Damascus.
(g) in those regions.

The Land of "Annunciata" and the "Isthmus Verazanio"
We left this place continually, skirting the coast, which we found turned to the east. Seeing everywhere great fires on account of the multitude of the inhabitants, anchoring there off the shore because it did not contain any port, on account of the need of water we sent the little boat to land with XXV men. Because of the very large waves which the sea cast up on the shore on account of the strand being open, it was not possible without danger of losing the boat for any one to land. We saw many people on shore making various signs of friendship, motioning us ashore; among whom I saw a magnificent deed, as Your Majesty will hear.
Sending ashore by swimming one of our young sailors carrying to them some trinkets, such as little bells, mirrors, and other favors and being approached within 4 fathoms of them, throwing the goods to them and wishing to turn back he was so tossed by the waves that almost half dead he was carried to the edge of the shore. Which having been seen, the people of the land ran immediately to him; taking him by the head, legs and arms, they carried him some distance away. Where, the youth, seeing himself carried in such a way, stricken with terror, uttered very loud cries, which they did similarly in their language, showing him that he should not fear. After that, having placed him on the ground in the sun at the foot of a little hill, they performed great acts of admiration, regarding the whiteness of his flesh, examining him from head to foot. Taking off his shirt and hose, leaving him nude, they made a very large fire near him, placing him near the heat. Which having been seen, the sailors who had remained in the small boat, full of fear, as is their custom in every new case, thought that they wanted to roast him for food. His strength recovered, having remained with them awhile, he showed by signs that he desired to return to the ship; who, with the greatest kindness, holding him always close with various embraces, accompanied him as far as the sea, and in order to assure him more, extending themselves on a high hill, stood to watch him until he was in the boat. Which young man learned of this people that they are thus: of dark color like the others, the flesh more lustrous, of medium stature, the face more clear-cut, much more delicate of body and other members, of much less strength and even of intelligence. He saw nothing else (h).
We called it Annunciata from the day of arrival, where was found an isthmus a mile in width and about 200 long, in which, from the ship, was seen the oriental sea between the west (before had been written ``the east'') and north. Which is the one, without doubt, which goes about the extremity of India, China and Cathay. We navigated along the said isthmus with the continual hope of finding some strait (after this word was written ``to the end of,'' but was cancelled) or true promontory at which the land would end toward the north in order to be able to penetrate to those blassed shores of Cathay. To which isthmus was given by the discoverer (the name Isthmus) Verazanio: as all the land found was named Francesca for our Francis.
Three Days in "Arcadia" A Boy Stolen
Having departed thence, following always the shore which turns somewhat toward the north, we came in the space of fifty leagues to another land which appeared much more beautiful and full of the largest forests. Anchoring at which, XX men going about two leagues inland, we found the people through fear had fled to the woods. Seeking everywhere, we met with a very old woman and a damsel of from XVIII to XX years, who through fear had hidden themselves in the grass. The old one had two little girls whom she carried on the shoulders, and back on the neck a boy, all of eight years of age. The young woman had as many of the same but all girls. Having approached toward them, they began to cry out (and) the old woman to make signs to us that the men had fled to the woods. We gave them to eat of our viands, which she accepted with great gusto; the young woman refused everything and with anger threw it to the ground. We took the boy from the old woman to carry to France, and wishing to take the young woman, who was of much beauty and of tall stature, it was not however possible, on account of the very great cries which she uttered, for us to conduct her to the sea. And having to pass through several woods, being far from the ship, we decided to release her carrying only the boy.
The Textile Plants and the Grape; The Offering of Fire
These we found whiter colored than those of previous ones, dressed in certain grasses which hang from the branches of trees, which they weave with various ends of wild hemp. The head bare in the same form as the others. Their food in general is of pulse with which they abound, differing in color and size from ours, of excellent and delectable flavor; also from hunting, fishes and birds, which they take with bows and with snares. They make (the bows) of tough wood, the arrow of reeds, placing at the extremities bones of fishes and of other animals. The beasts in this part are much wilder than in our Europe because they are continually molested by the hunters. We saw many of their boats constructed from a single tree twenty feet long, four feet wide, which are not fabricated with stones, iron or other kind of metals, because in all this land, in the space of two hundred leagues which we traveled, only one stone of any species was seen by us. They aid themselves with the fourth element, burning such part of the wood as suffices for the hollow of the barge, also of the stern and prow, so that, navigating, it is possible to plough the waves of the sea.
The land in situation, goodness and beauty, is like the other; the forests open: full of various kinds of trees, but not of such fragrance, on account of being more north and cold. We saw in that (land) many vines of natural growth which, rising, entwine themselves around the trees, as they are accustomed in Sialpine Gaul; which, if they had the perfect system of culture by the agriculturists, without doubt would produce excellent wines, because (of) finding many times the dry fruit of those (vines) sweet and agreeable, not different from ours. They are held in esteem by them, because whereever they (the vines) grow, they lift up the surrounding bushes in order that the fruit may be able to mature. We found wild roses, violets and lillies, and many sorts of herbs, and fragrant flowers different from ours. We did not learn about their habitations on account of their being within, inland. We think, on account of many signs we saw, they are composed of wood and grass, believing also from various conjectures and signs, that many of them, sleeping on the ground, have nothing for cover except the sky. We did not learn else of them. We think all the others of the land passed live in the same manner.
Having remained in this place three days, anchored off the coast, we decided on account of the scarcity of ports to depart, always skirting the shore (i) which we baptized Arcadia on account of the beauty of the trees, toward the north and east, navigating by daylight and casting anchor at night. (j) We followed a coast very green with forests but without ports, and with some charming promontories and small rivers.We baptized the coast ``di Lorenna'' on account of the Cardinal; the first promontory ``Lanzone,'' the second ``Bonivetto,'' the largest river ``Vandoma'' and a small mountain which stands by the sea '`di 5, Polo'' on account of the Count."
Note: Some scholars believe Vandoma was Verrazano's name for what later became known as the Delaware River. It could be safely speculated then that as L'Acadie in Nova Scotia was named Arcadia (after Verrazano) and the "Indians" from that place called "Cajuns," (short for Arcadians) that the Lenape could well have ended up as Vandoma Indians had history twisted another way.
Land of Angouleme, Bay of Santa Margarita (Here he clearly refers to what is now New York) In Arcadia we found a man who came to the shore to see what people we were: who stood hesitating and ready for flight. Watching us, he did not permit himself to be approached. He was handsome, nude, with hair fastened back in a knot, of olive color. We were about XX (in number) ashore and coaxing him he approached to within about two fathoms, showing a burning stick as if to offer us fire. And we made fire with powder and flint-and-steel and he trembled all over with terror and we fired a shot. He stopped as if astonished and prayed, worshipping like a monk, lifting his finger toward the sky, and pointing to the ship and the sea he appeared to bless us.

The following section was translated by Susan Tarrow, and published in the 1970 JP Morgan Library edition of Lawrence Wroth's The Voyages of Giovanni de Verrazzano 1524-1528

Her translation seems to be more modern and easy to understand than the one from the Long Island internet site.

After a hundred leagues, we found a very agreeable place between two small but prominent hills; between them a very wide river, deep at its mouth, flowed out into the sea; and wit h the help of the tide, which rises eight feet, any laden ship could have passed from the sea into the river estuary. Since we were anchored off the coast and well sheltered, we did not want to run any risks without knowing anything about the river mouth. So we took the small boat up this river to land which we found densely populated. The people were almost the same as the others, dressed in birds' feathers of various colors, and they came toward us joyfully, uttering loud cries of wonderment and showing us the safest place to beach the boat. We went up this river for about half a league, where we saw that it formed a beautiful lake, about three leagues in circumference (5 v) About xxx (30) of their small boats ran to and fro across the lake with innumerable people aboard who were crossing from one side to the other to see us. Suddenly, as often happens in sailing, a violent unfavorable wind blew in from the sea, and we were forced to return to the ship, leaving the land with much regeret on account of its favorable conditions and beauty; we think it was not without some properties of value, since all the hills showed signs of minerals.

To Block Island

We weighed anchor and sailed eastward since the land veered in that direction, and we covered lxxx (80) leagues, always keeping in sight of land. We discovered a triangular shaped island ten leagues from the mainland similar in size to the island of Rhodes; it was full of hills covered in trees, and highly populated to judge by the fires we saw burning continually along the shore. We baptized it in the name of your illustrious mother, but did not anchor there because the weather was unfavorable. We reached another land xv (15) leagues from the island where we found an excellent harbor before entering it, we saw about xx (20) boats full of people who came around the ship uttering various cries of wonderment. They did not come nearer than fifty paces, but stopped to look at the structure of our ship, our persons, our clothes; then all together they raised a loud cry which meant that they were joyful. We reassured them somewhat by imitating their gestures, and they came near enough for us to throw them a few little bells and mirrors and many trinkets, which they took and looked at, laughing and then they confidently came on board ship. Among them were two kings, who were as beautiful of stature and build as I can possibly describe. The first was about xxxx (40) years old, the other a young man of xxiiii, (23) and they were dressed thus; the older man had on his naked body a stag skin skillfully worked like damask with various embroideries; the head was bare, the hair tied back with various bands, and around the neck hung a wide chain decorated with many different-colored stones. The young man was dressed in almost the same way. These people are the most beautiful and have the most civil customs that we have found on this voyage. They are taller than we are; they are a bronze color, some tending more towards whiteness, others to a tawny color; the face is clear-cut, the hair is long and black, and they take great pains to decorate it; the eyes are black and alert, and their manner is sweet and gentle, very like the manner of the ancients.
..

The things we gave them that they prized the most were little bells, blue crystals and other trinkets to put in the ear or around the neck. They did not appreciate cloth of silk and gold, nor even of any other kind, nor did they care to have them; the same was true for metals like steel and iron, for many times when we showed them some of our arms, they did not admire them, nor ask for them, but merely examined the workmanship. They did the same with mirrors; they would look at them quickly and then refuse them, laughing. They are very generous and give away all they have.

We made great friends with them, and one day before we entered the harbor with the ship, when we were lying at anchor one league out to sea because of unfavorable weather, they came out to the ship with a great number of their boats; they had painted and decorated their faces with various colors, showing us that it was a sign of happiness. They brought us some of their food and showed us by signs where we should anchor in the port for the ship's safety, and then accompanied us all the way until we dropped anchor.
Fifteen Days Among the Indigenese of "Refugio"
We stayed there for xv (15) days, taking advantage of the place to refresh ourselves. (Here I will revert back to the Long Island internet translation.)
Every day the people came to see us at the ship, bringing their women, of whom they are very careful; because, entering the ship themselves, remaining a long time, they made their women stay in the barges, and however many entreaties we made them, offering to give them various things, it was not possible that they would allow them to enter the ship. And one of the two Kings coming many times with the Queen and many attendants through her desire to see us, at first always stopped on a land distant from us two hundred paces, sending a boat to inform us of their coming, saying they wished to come to see the ship; doing this for a kind of safety, And when they had the response from us, they came quickly, and having stood awhile to look, hearing the noisy clamor of the sailor crowd, sent the Queen with her damsels in a very light barge to to stay on a little island distant from us a quarter of a league; himself remaining a very long time, discoursing by signs and gestures of various fanciful ideas, examining all the equipments of the ship, asking especially their purpose, imitating our manners, tasting our foods, then parted from us benignantly. And one time, our people remaining two or three days on a little island near the ship for various necessities as is the custom of sailors, he came with seven or eight of his attendants. watching our operations, asking many times if we wished to remain there for a long time, offering us his every help. Then, shooting with the how, running, he performed with his attendants various games to give us pleasure.
Many times we were from five to six leagues inland which we found as pleasing as it can be to narrate, adapted to every kind of cultivation grain, wine, oil. Because in that place the fields are from XXV to XXX leagues wide, open and devoid of every impediment of trees, of such fertility that any seed in them would produce the best crops. Entering them into the woods, all of which are penetrable by any numerous army in any way whatsoever, and whose trees, oaks, cypresses, and others, are unknown in our Europe. We found Lucullian apples, (cherries, which Verazano had not seen before) plums and filberts, and many kinds of fruits different from ours. Animals there are in very great number, stags, deer, lynx, and other species which, in the way of others, they capture with snares and bows which are their principal arms. The arrows of whom are worked with great beauty, placing at the end, instead of iron, emery, jasper, hard marble, and other sharp stones, by which they served themselves instead of iron in cutting trees, making their barges from a single trunk of a tree, hollowed with wonderful skill, in which from fourteen to XV men will go comfortable; the short oar, broad at the end, working it solely with the strength of the arms at sea without any peril with as much speed as pleases them.
The Country of "Refugio" and the "Sicilian" Lamentation
Going further, we saw their habitations, circular in form, of XIIII to XV paces, compass, made from semi-circles of wood (i.e. arched saplings, bent in the form of an arbor) separated one from the other, without system of architecture, covered with mats of straw ingeniously worked, which protect them from rain and wind. There is no doubt that if they had the perfection of the arts we have, they would build magnificent edifices, for all the maritime coast is full of blue rocks, crystals and alabaster; and for such cause is full of ports and shelters for ships. They change said houses from one place to another according to the opulence of the site and the season in which they live. Carrying away only the mats, immediately they have other habitations made. There live in each a father and family to a very large number, so that in some we saw XXV and XXX souls. Their food is like the others: of pulse (which they produce with more system of culture than the others, observing the full moon, the rising of the Pleiades, and many customs derived from the ancients) also of the chase and fish. They live a long time and rarely incur illness; if they are oppressed with wounds, without crying they cure themselves by themselves with fire, their end being of old age. We judge they are very compassionate and charitable toward their relatives, making them great lamentations in their adversities, in their grief calling to mind all their good fortunes. The relatives, one with another, at the end of their life use the Sicilian lamentation, mingled with singing lasting a long time. This is as much as we were able to learn about them."